Methods for diagnosis of bacterial and viral infections

ABSTRACT

Methods for diagnosis of bacterial and viral infections are disclosed. In particular, the invention relates to the use of biomarkers that can determine whether a patient with acute inflammation has a bacterial or viral infection.

CROSS-REFERENCING

This application claims the benefit of U.S. provisional application Ser. No. 62/346,962, filed on Jun. 7, 2016, which application is incorporated by reference herein.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

This invention was made with Government support under contracts AI109662 and AI057229 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present invention pertains generally to methods for diagnosis of bacterial and viral infections. In particular, the invention relates to the use of biomarkers that can distinguish whether a patient with acute inflammation has a bacterial or viral infection.

BACKGROUND

Early and accurate diagnosis of infection is key to improving patient outcomes and reducing antibiotic resistance. The mortality rate of bacterial sepsis increases 8% for each hour by which antibiotics are delayed¹; however, giving antibiotics to patients without bacterial infections increases rates of morbidity and antimicrobial resistance. The rate of inappropriate antibiotic prescriptions in the hospital setting is estimated at 30-50%, and would be aided by improved diagnostics^(2,3). Strikingly, close to 95% of patients given antibiotics for suspected enteric fever have negative cultures⁴. There is currently no gold-standard point of care diagnostic that can broadly determine the presence and type of infection. Thus, the White House has established a National Action Plan for Combating Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria, which called for “point-of-need diagnostic tests to distinguish rapidly between bacterial and viral infections”⁵.

While new PCR-based molecular diagnostics can profile pathogens directly from a blood culture⁶, such methods rely on the presence of adequate numbers of pathogens in the blood. Moreover, they are limited to detecting a discrete range of pathogens. As a result, there is growing interest in molecular diagnostics that profile the host gene response. These include diagnostics that can distinguish the presence of infection as compared to inflamed but non-infected patients, such as our 11-gene ‘Sepsis MetaScore’⁷ (SMS) (which has been validated across multiple cohorts⁸) among others^(9,10). Other groups have focused on gene sets that can distinguish between types of infections, such as bacterial versus viral infections¹¹⁻¹³. Tsalik et al. described a model that distinguishes among all three classes (i.e., non-infected patients and those with bacterial or viral illness), though this model required the measurement of 122 probes¹⁴. We also previously described a ‘Meta-Virus Signature’ that describes a common response to viral infection, but contained too many genes (396) for clinical application'¹⁵. Overall, while great promise has been shown in this field, no host gene expression infection diagnostic has yet made it into clinical practice.

The data from these biomarker studies and dozens of other genome-wide expression studies in sepsis and acute infections have been published and deposited for further study in public databases such as NIH Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) and EBI ArrayExpress. These data are a largely untapped resource that can be used for both biomarker discovery and validation. We have previously shown that our integrated multi-cohort analysis of gene expression produces robust diagnostic tools for sepsis⁷, specific types of viral infections¹⁵, and active tuberculosis¹⁶. Further, these data are also useful as a benchmarking and validation tool for novel host gene expression diagnostics¹⁷. However, such validation in public data has previously been limited to only those cohorts which contain at least two classes of interest (i.e., in which a direct comparison between classes is possible), since inter-study technical differences preclude direct comparison of diagnostic scores between cohorts.

There remains a need for sensitive and specific diagnostic tests that can distinguish between bacterial and viral infections.

SUMMARY

The invention relates to the use of biomarkers that can determine whether a patient with acute inflammation has a bacterial or viral infection. These biomarkers can be used alone or in combination with one or more additional biomarkers or relevant clinical parameters in prognosis, diagnosis, or monitoring treatment of an infection.

In one embodiment, the invention is drawn to a method of developing a classification used for diagnosing an infection in a patient, the method including: (a) measuring levels of expression of at least two biomarkers in a biological sample of a patient; the at least two biomarkers selected from either or both of a first set of biomarkers wherein a higher level of expression indicates a bacterial infection, and a second set of biomarkers wherein a higher level of expression indicates a viral infection; wherein the first set of biomarkers include at least one of TSPO, EMR1, NINJ2, ACPP, TBXAS1, PGD, S100A12, SORT1, TNIP1, RAB31, SLC12A9, PLP2, IMPA2, GPAA1, LTA4H, RTN3, CETP, TALD01, HK3, ACAA1, CAT, DOK3, SORL1, PYGL, DYSF, TWF2, TKT, CTSB, FLII, PROS1, NRD1, STAT5B, CYBRD1, PTAFR, and LAPTM5; and wherein the second set of biomarkers include at least one of OAS1, IFIT1, SAMD9, ISG15, HERCS, DDX60, HESX1, IFI6, MX1, OASL, LAX1, IFIT5, IFIT3, KCTD14, OAS2, RTP4, PARP12, LY6E, ADA, IFI44L, IFI27, RSAD2, IFI44, OAS3, IFIH1, SIGLEC1, JUP, STAT1, CUL1, DNMT1, IFIT2, CHST12, ISG20, DHX58, EIF2AK2, XAF1, and GZMB; (b) using the levels of expression of the biomarkers to develop a classification or generative algorithm which can determine presence or probability of bacterial or viral infection in the patient; and (c) applying the algorithm to diagnose the patient as having or as likely to have bacterial or viral infection.

In one embodiment, the invention is drawn to a method for diagnosis of an infection in a patient, the method including analyzing levels of expression of at least two genes, wherein the at least two genes are predictive of either a viral or bacterial infection; and wherein the levels of expression of the at least two genes provide an area under a curve for predicting a viral or bacterial infection of at least 0.80; and diagnosing the patient as having either a bacterial or viral infection.

In one embodiment, the invention is drawn to a method for diagnosing and treating an infection in a patient, the method including (a) obtaining a biological sample from the patient; (b) measuring the levels of expression of IFI27, JUP, LAX1, HK3, TNIP1, GPAA1, and CTSB biomarkers in the biological sample; (c) analyzing the levels of expression of each biomarker in conjunction with respective reference value ranges for the biomarkers, wherein increased levels of expression of the IFI27, JUP, LAX1 biomarkers compared to the reference value ranges for the biomarkers for a control subject indicate that the patient has a viral infection, and increased levels of expression of the HK3, TNIP1, GPAA1, CTSB biomarkers compared to the reference value ranges for the biomarkers for a control subject indicate that the patient has a bacterial infection; and (d) administering an effective amount of an anti-viral agent to the patient if the patient is diagnosed with a viral infection or administering an effective amount of an antibiotic to the patient if the patient is diagnosed with a bacterial infection.

In any embodiment, the biological sample can include whole blood or peripheral blood mononucleated cells (PBMCS).

In any embodiment, the levels of the biomarkers can be compared to time-matched reference values for infected or non-infected subjects.

In any embodiment, the method can include calculating a bacterial/viral metascore for the patient based on the levels of the biomarkers, wherein a positive bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a viral infection and a negative bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a bacterial infection.

In any embodiment, the method can include normalizing data using COCONUT normalization.

In any embodiment, the patient can be a human being.

In any embodiment, measuring the level of the plurality of biomarkers can include performing microarray analysis, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), a Northern blot, or a serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE).

In one embodiment, the invention is drawn to a method of diagnosing and treating a patient having inflammation, the method including (a) obtaining a biological sample from the patient; (b) measuring levels of expression of IFI27, JUP, LAX1, HK3, TNIP1, GPAA1, CTSB, CEACAM1, ZDHHC19, C9orf95, GNA15, BATF, C3AR1, KIAA1370, TGFBI, MTCH1, RPGRIP1, and HLA-DPB1 biomarkers in the biological sample; (c) first analyzing the levels of expression of each biomarker in conjunction with respective reference value ranges for the biomarkers, wherein increased levels of expression of the CEACAM1, ZDHHC19, C9orf95, GNA15, BATF, and C3AR1 biomarkers and decreased levels of expression of the KIAA1370, TGFBI, MTCH1, RPGRIP1, and HLA-DPB1 biomarkers compared to the reference value ranges for the biomarkers for a non-infected control subject indicate that the patient has an infection, and absence of differential expression of the CEACAM1, ZDHHC19, C9orf95, GNA15, BATF, C3AR1, KIAA1370, TGFBI, MTCH1, RPGRIP1, and HLA-DPB1 biomarkers compared the non-infected control subject indicates that the patient does not have an infection; (d) further analyzing the levels of expression of the IFI27, JUP, LAX1, HK3, TNIP1, GPAA1, and CTSB biomarkers, if the patient is diagnosed as having an infection, wherein increased levels of expression of the IFI27, JUP, LAX1 biomarkers compared to reference value ranges for the biomarkers for a control subject indicate that the patient has a viral infection, and increased levels of expression of the HK3, TNIP1, GPAA1, CTSB biomarkers compared to the reference value ranges for the biomarkers for the control subject indicate that the patient has a bacterial infection; and (e) administering an effective amount of an anti-viral agent to the patient if the patient is diagnosed with a viral infection, or administering an effective amount of an antibiotic to the patient if the patient is diagnosed with a bacterial infection.

In any embodiment, the method can include calculating a sepsis metascore for the patient, wherein a sepsis metascore that is higher than the reference value ranges for a non-infected control subject indicates that the patient has an infection, and a sepsis metascore that is within the reference value ranges for a non-infected control subject indicates that the patient has a non-infectious inflammatory condition.

In any embodiment, the method can include calculating a bacterial/viral metascore for the patient if the patient is diagnosed as having an infection, wherein a positive bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a viral infection and a negative bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a bacterial infection.

In any embodiment, the levels of the biomarkers can be compared to time-matched reference values for infected or non-infected subjects.

In any embodiment, the non-infectious inflammatory condition can be selected from the group of systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS), an autoimmune disorder, a traumatic injury, and surgery.

In any embodiment, the patient can be a human being.

In any embodiment, measuring the levels of the biomarkers can include performing microarray analysis, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), a Northern blot, or a serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE).

In one embodiment, the invention is drawn to a kit including agents for measuring the levels of IFI27, JUP, LAX1, HK3, TNIP1, GPAA1, and CTSB biomarkers.

In any embodiment, the kit can include agents for measuring the levels of CEACAM1, ZDHHC19, C9orf95, GNA15, BATF, C3AR1, KIAA1370, TGFBI, MTCH1, RPGRIP1, and HLA-DPB1 biomarkers

In any embodiment, the kit can include a microarray.

In any embodiment, the microarray can include an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to an IFI27 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a JUP polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a LAX1 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a HK3 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a TNIP1 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a GPAA1 polynucleotide, and an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a CTSB polynucleotide.

In any embodiment the microarray can include an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a CEACAM1 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a ZDHHC19 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a C9orf95 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a GNA15 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a BATF polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a C3AR1 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a KIAA1370 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a TGFBI polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a MTCH1 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a RPGRIP1 polynucleotide, and an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a HLA-DPB1 polynucleotide.

In any embodiment, the kit can include information, in electronic or paper form, with instructions to correlate the detected levels of each biomarker with sepsis.

In one embodiment, the method is drawn to a computer implemented method for diagnosing a patient suspected of having an infection, the computer performing steps of: (a) receiving inputted patient data including values for the levels of IFI27, JUP, LAX1, HK3, TNIP1, GPAA1, and CTSB biomarkers in a biological sample from the patient; b) analyzing the level of each of the biomarkers and comparing with respective reference value ranges for the biomarkers; c) calculating a bacterial/viral metascore for the patient based on the levels of the biomarkers, wherein a positive bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a viral infection and a negative bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a bacterial infection; and (d) displaying information regarding the diagnosis of the patient.

In any embodiment, the biological sample can include whole blood or peripheral blood mononucleated cells (PBMCS).

In one embodiment, the invention is drawn to a diagnostic system for performing the computer implemented method, the diagnostic system including a) a storage component for storing data, wherein the storage component has instructions for determining the diagnosis of the patient stored therein; b) a computer processor for processing data, wherein the computer processor is coupled to the storage component and configured to execute the instructions stored in the storage component in order to receive patient data and analyze patient data according to one or more algorithms; and (c) a display component for displaying information regarding the diagnosis of the patient.

In any embodiment, the storage component can include instructions for calculating the bacterial/viral metascore.

In one embodiment, the invention is drawn to a computer implemented method for diagnosing a patient having inflammation, the computer performing steps of: a) receiving inputted patient data including values for the levels of IFI27, JUP, LAX1, HK3, TNIP1, GPAA1, CTSB, CEACAM1, ZDHHC19, C9orf95, GNA15, BATF, C3AR1, KIAA1370, TGFBI, MTCH1, RPGRIP1, and HLA-DPB1 biomarkers in a biological sample from the patient; b) analyzing the levels of each of the biomarkers and comparing with respective reference value ranges for the biomarkers; c) calculating a sepsis metascore for the patient, wherein a sepsis metascore that is higher than the reference value ranges for a non-infected control subject indicates that the patient has an infection, and a sepsis metascore that is within the reference value ranges for a non-infected control subject indicates that the patient has a non-infectious inflammatory condition; d) calculating a bacterial/viral metascore for the patient if the sepsis score indicates that the patient has an infection, wherein a positive bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a viral infection and a negative bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a bacterial infection; and e displaying information regarding the diagnosis of the patient.

In any embodiment, the biological sample can include whole blood or peripheral blood mononucleated cells (PBMCS).

In one embodiment, the invention is drawn to a diagnostic system for performing the computer implemented method, the diagnostic system including a) a storage component for storing data, wherein the storage component has instructions for determining the diagnosis of the patient stored therein; b) a computer processor for processing data, wherein the computer processor is coupled to the storage component and configured to execute the instructions stored in the storage component in order to receive patient data and analyze patient data according to one or more algorithms; and c) a display component for displaying information regarding the diagnosis of the patient.

In any embodiment, the storage component can include instructions for calculating the sepsis metascore and the bacterial/viral metascore.

In one embodiment, the invention is drawn to a method for diagnosing and treating an infection in a patient, the method including: a) obtaining a biological sample from the patient; b) measuring the levels of expression of a set of viral response genes and a set of bacterial response genes in the biological sample, wherein the set of viral response genes includes one or more genes selected from the group of OAS2, CUL1, ISG15, CHST12, IFIT1, SIGLEC1, ADA, MX1, RSAD2, IFI44L, GZMB, KCTD14, LY6E, IFI44, HESX1, OASL, OAS1, OAS3, EIF2AK2, DDX60, DNMT1, HERCS, IFIH1, SAMD9, IFI6, IFIT3, IFIT5, XAF1, ISG20, PARP12, IFIT2, DHX58, STAT1, and the set of bacterial response genes includes one or more genes selected from the group of SLC12A9, ACPP, STAT5B, EMR1, FLII, PTAFR, NRD1, PLP2, DYSF, TWF2, SORT1, TSPO, TBXAS1, ACAA1, S100Al2, PGD, LAPTM5, NINJ2, DOK3, SORL1, RAB31, IMPA2, LTA4H, TALDO1, TKT, PYGL, CETP, PROS1, RTN3, CAT, CYBRD1; and c) analyzing the levels of expression of each biomarker in conjunction with respective reference value ranges for a noninfected control subject, wherein differential expression of the viral response genes compared to the reference value.

In any embodiment, the set of viral response genes and the set of bacterial response genes can be selected from the group of: a) a set of viral response genes including OAS2 and CUL1 and a set of bacterial response genes including SLC12A9, ACPP, STAT5B; b) a set of viral response genes including ISG15 and CHST12 and a set of bacterial response genes including EMR1 and FLII; c) a set of viral response genes including IFIT1, SIGLEC1, and ADA and a set of bacterial response genes including PTAFR, NRD1, PLP2; d) a set of viral response genes including MX1 and a set of bacterial response genes including DYSF, TWF2; e) a set of viral response genes including RSAD2 and a set of bacterial response genes including SORT1 and TSPO; f) a set of viral response genes including IFI44L, GZMB, and KCTD14 and a set of bacterial response genes including TBXAS1, ACAA1, and S100A12; g) a set of viral response genes including LY6E and a set of bacterial response genes including PGD and LAPTM5; h) a set of viral response genes including IFI44, HESX1, and OASL and a set of bacterial response genes including NINJ2, DOK3, SORL1, and RAB31; and i) a set of viral response genes including OAS1 and a set of bacterial response genes including IMPA2 and LTA4H.

In any embodiment, the biological sample can include whole blood or peripheral blood mononucleated cells (PBMCS).

In any embodiment, the levels of the biomarkers can be compared to time-matched reference values for infected or non-infected subjects.

In any embodiment, the method can include calculating a bacterial/viral metascore for the patient t based on the levels of the biomarkers, wherein a positive bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a viral infection and a negative bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a bacterial infection.

In any embodiment, the method can include measuring levels of expression of IFI27, JUP, LAX1, HK3, TNIP1, GPAA1, CTSB, CEACAM1, ZDHHC19, C9orf95, GNA15, BATF, C3AR1, KIAA1370, TGFBI, MTCH1, RPGRIP1, and HLA-DPB1 biomarkers in the biological sample; and analyzing the levels of expression of each biomarker in conjunction with respective reference value ranges for the biomarkers, wherein increased levels of expression of the CEACAM1, ZDHHC19, C9orf95, GNA15, BATF, and C3AR1 biomarkers and decreased levels of expression of the KIAA1370, TGFBI, MTCH1, RPGRIP1, and HLA-DPB1 biomarkers compared to the reference value ranges for the biomarkers for a non-infected control subject indicate that the patient has an infection, and absence of differential expression of the CEACAM1, ZDHHC19, C9orf95, GNA15, BATF, C3AR1, KIAA1370, TGFBI, MTCH1, RPGRIP1, and HLA-DPB1 biomarkers compared the non-infected control subject indicates that the patient does not have an infection.

In one embodiment, the invention is drawn to a kit including agents for measuring the levels of expression of a set of viral response genes and a set of bacterial response genes selected from the group of: (a) a set of viral response genes including OAS2 and CUL1 and a set of bacterial response genes including SLC12A9, ACPP, STATSB; (b) a set of viral response genes including ISG15 and CHST12 and a set of bacterial response genes including EMR1 and FLII; b) a set of viral response genes including IFIT1, SIGLEC1, and ADA and a set of bacterial response genes including PTAFR, NRD1, PLP2; c) a set of viral response genes including MX1 and a set of bacterial response genes including DYSF, TWF2; d) a set of viral response genes including RSAD2 and a set of bacterial response genes including SORT1 and TSPO; e) a set of viral response genes including IFI44L, GZMB, and KCTD14 and a set of bacterial response genes including TBXAS1, ACAA1, and S100A12; f) a set of viral response genes including LY6E and a set of bacterial response genes including PGD and LAPTMS; g) a set of viral response genes including IFI44, HESX1, and OASL and a set of bacterial response genes including NINJ2, DOK3, SORL1, and RAB31; and h) a set of viral response genes including OAS1 and a set of bacterial response genes including IMPA2 and LTA4H.

In any embodiment, the kit can include a microarray.

In one embodiment, the invention is drawn to a computer implemented method for diagnosing a patient suspected of having an infection, the computer performing steps of: a) receiving inputted patient data including values for the levels of expression in a biological sample of a set of viral response genes and a set of bacterial response genes in the biological sample, wherein the set of viral response genes includes one or more genes selected from the group of OAS2, CUL1, ISG15, CHST12, IFIT1, SIGLEC1, ADA, MX1, RSAD2, IFI44L, GZMB, KCTD14, LY6E, IFI44, HESX1, OASL, OAS1, OAS3, EIF2AK2, DDX60, DNMT1, HERC5, IFIH1, SAMD9, IFI6, IFIT3, IFIT5, XAF1, ISG20, PARP12, IFIT2, DHX58, STAT1, and the set of bacterial response genes includes one or more genes selected from the group of SLC12A9, ACPP, STAT5B, EMR1, FLII, PTAFR, NRD1, PLP2, DYSF, TWF2, SORT1, TSPO, TBXAS1, ACAA1, S100A12, PGD, LAPTM5, NINJ2, DOK3, SORL1, RAB31, IMPA2, LTA4H, TALDO1, TKT, PYGL, CETP, PROS1, RTN3, CAT, CYBRD1; b) analyzing the levels of expression of the set of viral response genes and the set of bacterial response genes and comparing with respective reference value ranges for a noninfected control subject; c) calculating a bacterial/viral metascore for the patient based on the levels of expression of the set of viral response genes and the set of bacterial response genes; and (d) displaying information regarding the diagnosis of the patient.

In one embodiment, the invention is drawn to a diagnostic system for performing the computer implemented method, the diagnostic system including a) a storage component for storing data, wherein the storage component has instructions for determining the diagnosis of the patient stored therein; b) a computer processor for processing data, wherein the computer processor is coupled to the storage component and configured to execute the instructions stored in the storage component in order to receive patient data and analyze patient data according to one or more algorithms; and c) a display component for displaying information regarding the diagnosis of the patient.

In one embodiment, the invention includes a method for diagnosing an infection in a patient, including (a) measuring levels of expression of at least two biomarkers in a biological sample of a patient; the at least two biomarkers selected from either or both of a first set of biomarkers wherein a higher level of expression indicates a bacterial infection, and a second set of biomarkers wherein a higher level of expression indicates a viral infection; wherein the first set of biomarkers include at least one of TSPO, EMR1, NINJ2, ACPP, TBXAS1, PGD, S100A12, SORT1, TNIP1, RAB31, SLC12A9, PLP2, IMPA2, GPAA1, LTA4H, RTN3, CETP, TALD01, HK3, ACAA1, CAT, DOK3, SORL1, PYGL, DYSF, TWF2, TKT, CTSB, FLII, PROS1, NRD1, STAT5B, CYBRD1, PTAFR, and LAPTM5; and wherein the second set of biomarkers include at least one of OAST, IFIT1, SAMD9, ISG15, HERC5, DDX60, HESX1, IFI6, MX1, OASL, LAX1, IFIT5, IFIT3, KCTD14, OAS2, RTP4, PARP12, LY6E, ADA, IFI44L, IFI27, RSAD2, IFI44, OAS3, IFIH1, SIGLEC1, JUP, STAT1, CUL1, DNMT1, IFIT2, CHST12, ISG20, DHX58, EIF2AK2, XAF1, and GZMB; and (b) analyzing the levels of expression of each biomarker in conjunction with respective reference value ranges for the biomarkers to determine a viral or bacterial infection.

In any embodiment, the method can include administering an effective amount of an anti-viral agent to the patient if the patient is diagnosed with a viral infection or administering an effective amount of an antibiotic to the patient if the patient is diagnosed with a bacterial infection.

In any embodiment, the levels of expression of the at least two biomarkers can provide an area under a curve of at least 0.80.

In any embodiment, the first set of biomarkers can include at least one of HK3, TNIP1, GPAA1, and CTSB; and the second set of biomarkers can include at least one of IFI27, JUP, and LAX1.

In any embodiment, the biological sample can include whole blood or peripheral blood mononucleated cells (PBMCS).

In any embodiment, the levels of the biomarkers can be compared to time-matched reference values for infected or non-infected subjects.

In any embodiment, the method can include calculating a bacterial/viral metascore for the patient based on the levels of the biomarkers, wherein a positive bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a viral infection and a negative bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a bacterial infection.

In any embodiment, the method can include normalizing data using COCONUT normalization; COCONUT normalization including the steps of (a) separating data from multiple cohorts into healthy and diseased components; (b) co-normalizing the healthy components using ComBat co-normalization without covariates; (c) obtaining ComBat estimated parameters for each dataset for the healthy component; and (d) applying the ComBat estimated parameters onto the diseased component.

In any embodiment, the patient can be a human being.

In any embodiment, measuring the level of the plurality of biomarkers can include performing microarray analysis, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), a Northern blot, or a serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE).

In one embodiment, the invention can include a method of diagnosing and treating a patient having inflammation, the method including the steps of (a) measuring levels of expression of IFI27, JUP, LAX1, HK3, TNIP1, GPAA1, CTSB, CEACAM1, ZDHHC19, C9orf95, GNA15, BATF, C3AR1, KIAA1370, TGFBI, MTCH1, RPGRIP1, and HLA-DPB1 biomarkers in a biological sample of the patient; (b) first analyzing the levels of expression of each biomarker in conjunction with respective reference value ranges for the biomarkers, wherein increased levels of expression of the CEACAM1, ZDHHC19, C9orf95, GNA15, BATF, and C3AR1 biomarkers and decreased levels of expression of the KIAA1370, TGFBI, MTCH1, RPGRIP1, and HLA-DPB1 biomarkers compared to the reference value ranges for the biomarkers for a non-infected control subject indicate that the patient has an infection, and absence of differential expression of the CEACAM1, ZDHHC19, C9orf95, GNA15, BATF, C3AR1, KIAA1370, TGFBI, MTCH1, RPGRIP1, and HLA-DPB1 biomarkers compared the non-infected control subject indicates that the patient does not have an infection; and; (c) further analyzing the levels of expression of at least two biomarkers in a biological sample of a patient; the at least two biomarkers selected from either or both of a first set of biomarkers wherein a higher level of expression indicates a bacterial infection, and a second set of biomarkers wherein a higher level of expression indicates a viral infection; wherein the first set of biomarkers include at least one of TSPO, EMR1, NINJ2, ACPP, TBXAS1, PGD, S100A12, SORT1, TNIP1, RAB31, SLC12A9, PLP2, IMPA2, GPAA1, LTA4H, RTN3, CETP, TALD01, HK3, ACAA1, CAT, DOK3, SORL1, PYGL, DYSF, TWF2, TKT, CTSB, FLII, PROS1, NRD1, STAT5B, CYBRD1, PTAFR, and LAPTM5; and wherein the second set of biomarkers include at least one of OAS1, IFIT1, SAMD9, ISG15, HERC5, DDX60, HESX1, IFI6, MX1, OASL, LAX1, IFIT5, IFIT3, KCTD14, OAS2, RTP4, PARP12, LY6E, ADA, IFI44L, IFI27, RSAD2, IFI44, OAS3, IFIH1, SIGLEC1, JUP, STAT1, CUL1, DNMT1, IFIT2, CHST12, ISG20, DHX58, EIF2AK2, XAF1, and GZMB to determine a bacterial or viral infection.

In any embodiment, the method can include calculating a sepsis metascore for the patient, wherein a sepsis metascore that is higher than the reference value ranges for a non-infected control subject indicates that the patient has an infection, and a sepsis metascore that is within the reference value ranges for a non-infected control subject indicates that the patient has a non-infectious inflammatory condition.

In any embodiment, the method can include calculating a bacterial/viral metascore for the patient if the patient is diagnosed as having an infection, wherein a positive bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a viral infection and a negative bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a bacterial infection.

In any embodiment, the levels of the biomarkers can be compared to time-matched reference values for infected or non-infected subjects.

In any embodiment, the non-infectious inflammatory condition can be selected from the group of systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS), an autoimmune disorder, a traumatic injury, and surgery.

In any embodiment, the patient can be a human being.

In any embodiment, measuring the levels of the biomarkers can include performing microarray analysis, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), a Northern blot, or a serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE).

In one embodiment, the method is drawn to a kit, the kit including agents for measuring the levels of at least two biomarkers in a biological sample of a patient; the at least two biomarkers selected from either or both of a first set of biomarkers wherein a higher level of expression indicates a bacterial infection, and a second set of biomarkers wherein a higher level of expression indicates a viral infection wherein the first set of biomarkers includes at least one of TSPO, EMR1, NINJ2, ACPP, TBXAS1, PGD, S100A12, SORT1, TNIP1, RAB31, SLC12A9, PLP2, IMPA2, GPAA1, LTA4H, RTN3, CETP, TALD01, HK3, ACAA1, CAT, DOK3, SORL1, PYGL, DYSF, TWF2, TKT, CTSB, FLII, PROS1, NRD1, STAT5B, CYBRD1, PTAFR, and LAPTM5; and wherein the second set of biomarkers includes at least one of OAS1, IFIT1, SAMD9, ISG15, HERC5, DDX60, HESX1, IFI6, MX1, OASL, LAX1, IFIT5, IFIT3, KCTD14, OAS2, RTP4, PARP12, LY6E, ADA, IFI44L, IFI27, RSAD2, IFI44, OAS3, IFIH1, SIGLEC1, JUP, STAT1, CUL1, DNMT1, IFIT2, CHST12, ISG20, DHX58, EIF2AK2, XAF1, and GZMB.

In any embodiment, the kit can include agents for measuring the levels of CEACAM1, ZDHHC19, C9orf95, GNA15, BATF, C3AR1, KIAA1370, TGFBI, MTCH1, RPGRIP1, and HLA-DPB1 biomarkers.

In any embodiment, the kit can include a microarray.

In any embodiment, the microarray can include an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to an IFI27 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a JUP polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a LAX1 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a HK3 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a TNIP1 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a GPAA1 polynucleotide, and an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a CTSB polynucleotide.

In any embodiment, the microarray can include an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a CEACAM1 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a ZDHHC19 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a C9orf95 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a GNA15 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a BATF polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a C3AR1 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a KIAA1370 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a TGFBI polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a MTCH1 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a RPGRIP1 polynucleotide, and an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a HLA-DPB1 polynucleotide.

In any embodiment, the kit can include information, in electronic or paper form, having instructions to correlate the detected levels of each biomarker with sepsis.

In one embodiment, the invention is drawn to a computer implemented method for diagnosing a patient suspected of having an infection, the computer performing steps of: (a) receiving inputted patient data including values for the levels of at least two biomarkers in a biological sample of a patient; the at least two biomarkers selected from either or both of a first set of biomarkers wherein a higher level of expression indicates a bacterial infection, and a second set of biomarkers wherein a higher level of expression indicates a viral infection; wherein the first set of biomarkers include at least one of TSPO, EMR1, NINJ2, ACPP, TBXAS1, PGD, S100A12, SORT1, TNIP1, RAB31, SLC12A9, PLP2, IMPA2, GPAA1, LTA4H, RTN3, CETP, TALD01, HK3, ACAA1, CAT, DOK3, SORL1, PYGL, DYSF, TWF2, TKT, CTSB, FLII, PROS1, NRD1, STAT5B, CYBRD1, PTAFR, and LAPTM5; and wherein the second set of biomarkers include at least one of OAS1, IFIT1, SAMD9, ISG15, HERC5, DDX60, HESX1, IFI6, MX1, OASL, LAX1, IFIT5, IFIT3, KCTD14, OAS2, RTP4, PARP12, LY6E, ADA, IFI44L, IFI27, RSAD2, IFI44, OAS3, IFIH1, SIGLEC1, JUP, STAT1, CUL1, DNMT1, IFIT2, CHST12, ISG20, DHX58, EIF2AK2, XAF1, and GZMB biomarkers in the biological sample from the patient; (b) analyzing the level of each of the biomarkers and comparing with respective reference value ranges for the biomarkers; (c) calculating a bacterial/viral metascore for the patient based on the levels of the biomarkers, wherein a positive bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a viral infection and a negative bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a bacterial infection; and (d) displaying information regarding the diagnosis of the patient.

In any embodiment, the biological sample can include whole blood or peripheral blood mononucleated cells (PBMCS).

In one embodiment, the invention is drawn to a diagnostic system carrying out the computer implemented method, including (a) a storage component for storing data, wherein the storage component has instructions for determining the diagnosis of the patient stored therein; (b) a computer processor for processing data, wherein the computer processor is coupled to the storage component and configured to execute the instructions stored in the storage component in order to receive patient data and analyze patient data according to one or more algorithms; and (c) a display component for displaying information regarding the diagnosis of the patient.

In any embodiment, the storage component can include instructions for calculating the bacterial/viral metascore.

In one embodiment, the invention is drawn to a computer implemented method for diagnosing a patient having inflammation, the computer performing the steps of (a) receiving inputted patient data having values for the levels of IFI27, JUP, LAX1, HK3, TNIP1, GPAA1, CTSB, CEACAM1, ZDHHC19, C9orf95, GNA15, BATF, C3AR1, KIAA1370, TGFBI, MTCH1, RPGRIP1, and HLA-DPB1 biomarkers in a biological sample from the patient; (b) analyzing the levels of each of the biomarkers and comparing with respective reference value ranges for the biomarkers; (c) calculating a sepsis metascore for the patient, wherein a sepsis metascore that is higher than the reference value ranges for a non-infected control subject indicates that the patient has an infection, and a sepsis metascore that is within the reference value ranges for a non-infected control subject indicates that the patient has a non-infectious inflammatory condition; (d) calculating a bacterial/viral metascore for the patient if the sepsis score indicates that the patient has an infection, wherein a positive bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a viral infection and a negative bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a bacterial infection; and (e) displaying information regarding the diagnosis of the patient.

In any embodiment, the biological sample can include whole blood or peripheral blood mononucleated cells (PBMCS).

In one embodiment, the invention is drawn to a diagnostic system carrying out the computer implemented method, including (a) a storage component for storing data, wherein the storage component has instructions for determining the diagnosis of the patient stored therein; (b) a computer processor for processing data, wherein the computer processor is coupled to the storage component and configured to execute the instructions stored in the storage component in order to receive patient data and analyze patient data according to one or more algorithms; and (c) a display component for displaying information regarding the diagnosis of the patient.

In any embodiment, the storage component can include instructions for calculating the sepsis metascore and the bacterial/viral metascore.

In one embodiment, the invention is drawn to a method for diagnosing and treating an infection in a patient, the method including (a) obtaining a biological sample from the patient; (b) measuring the levels of expression of any set of at least two biomarkers in a biological sample of a patient; the at least two biomarkers selected from either or both of a first set of biomarkers wherein a higher level of expression indicates a bacterial infection, and a second set of biomarkers wherein a higher level of expression indicates a viral infection; wherein the first set of biomarkers include at least one of TSPO, EMR1, NINJ2, ACPP, TBXAS1, PGD, S100A12, SORT1, TNIP1, RAB31, SLC12A9, PLP2, IMPA2, GPAA1, LTA4H, RTN3, CETP, TALD01, HK3, ACAA1, CAT, DOK3, SORL1, PYGL, DYSF, TWF2, TKT, CTSB, FLII, PROS1, NRD1, STAT5B, CYBRD1, PTAFR, and LAPTM5; and wherein the second set of biomarkers include at least one of OAS1, IFIT1, SAMD9, ISG15, HERC5, DDX60, HESX1, IFI6, MX1, OASL, LAX1, IFIT5, IFIT3, KCTD14, OAS2, RTP4, PARP12, LY6E, ADA, IFI44L, IFI27, RSAD2, IFI44, OAS3, IFIH1, SIGLEC1, JUP, STAT1, CUL1, DNMT1, IFIT2, CHST12, ISG20, DHX58, EIF2AK2, XAF1, and GZMB; and (c) analyzing the levels of expression of each biomarker in conjunction with respective reference value ranges for a noninfected control subject, wherein differential expression of the viral response genes compared to the reference value ranges for a noninfected control subject indicate that the patient has a viral infection, and differential expression of the bacterial response genes compared to the reference value ranges for a noninfected control subject indicate that the patient has a bacterial infection.

In any embodiment, the set of viral and bacterial response genes can be selected from the group of: (a) a set of viral response genes including OAS2 and CUL1 and a set of bacterial response genes including SLC12A9, ACPP, STAT5B; (b) a set of viral response genes including ISG15 and CHST12 and a set of bacterial response genes including EMR1 and FLII; (c) a set of viral response genes including IFIT1, SIGLEC1, and ADA and a set of bacterial response genes including PTAFR, NRD1, PLP2; (d) a set of viral response genes including MX1 and a set of bacterial response genes including DYSF, TWF2; (e) a set of viral response genes including RSAD2 and a set of bacterial response genes including SORT1 and TSPO; (f) a set of viral response genes including IFI44L, GZMB, and KCTD14 and a set of bacterial response genes including TBXAS1, ACAA1, and S100A12; (g) a set of viral response genes including LY6E and a set of bacterial response genes including PGD and LAPTM5; (h) a set of viral response genes including IFI44, HESX1, and OASL and a set of bacterial response genes including NINJ2, DOK3, SORL1, and RAB31; and (i) a set of viral response genes including OAS1 and a set of bacterial response genes including IMPA2 and LTA4H.

In any embodiment, the biological sample can include whole blood or peripheral blood mononucleated cells (PBMCS).

In any embodiment, the levels of the biomarkers can be compared to time-matched reference values for infected or non-infected subjects.

In any embodiment, the method can include calculating a bacterial/viral metascore for the patient based on the levels of the biomarkers, wherein a positive bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a viral infection and a negative bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a bacterial infection.

In any embodiment, the method can include measuring levels of expression of IFI27, JUP, LAX1, HK3, TNIP1, GPAA1, CTSB, CEACAM1, ZDHHC19, C9orf95, GNA15, BATF, C3AR1, KIAA1370, TGFBI, MTCH1, RPGRIP1, and HLA-DPB1 biomarkers in the biological sample; and analyzing the levels of expression of each biomarker in conjunction with respective reference value ranges for the biomarkers, wherein increased levels of expression of the CEACAM1, ZDHHC19, C9orf95, GNA15, BATF, and C3AR1 biomarkers and decreased levels of expression of the KIAA1370, TGFBI, MTCH1, RPGRIP1, and HLA-DPB1 biomarkers compared to the reference value ranges for the biomarkers for a non-infected control subject indicate that the patient has an infection, and absence of differential expression of the CEACAM1, ZDHHC19, C9orf95, GNA15, BATF, C3AR1, KIAA1370, TGFBI, MTCH1, RPGRIP1, and HLA-DPB1 biomarkers compared the non-infected control subject indicates that the patient does not have an infection.

In one embodiment, the method is drawn to a kit, the kit including agents for measuring the levels of expression of a set of viral response genes and a set of bacterial response genes selected from (a) a set of viral response genes including OAS2 and CUL1 and a set of bacterial response genes including SLC12A9, ACPP, STAT5B; (b) a set of viral response genes including ISG15 and CHST12 and a set of bacterial response genes including EMR1 and FLII; (c) a set of viral response genes including IFIT1, SIGLEC1, and ADA and a set of bacterial response genes including PTAFR, NRD1, PLP2; (d) a set of viral response genes including MX1 and a set of bacterial response genes including DYSF, TWF2; (e) a set of viral response genes including RSAD2 and a set of bacterial response genes including SORT1 and TSPO; (f) a set of viral response genes including IFI44L, GZMB, and KCTD14 and a set of bacterial response genes including TBXAS1, ACAA1, and S100A12; (h) a set of viral response genes including IFI44, HESX1, and OASL and a set of bacterial response genes including NINJ2, DOK3, SORL1, and RAB31; and (i) a set of viral response genes including OAS1 and a set of bacterial response genes including IMPA2 and LTA4H.

In any embodiment, the kit can include a microarray.

In one embodiment, the invention is drawn to a computer implemented method for diagnosing a patient suspected of having an infection, the computer performing the steps of (a) receiving inputted patient data including values for the levels of expression of at least two biomarkers in a biological sample of a patient; the at least two biomarkers selected from either or both of a first set of biomarkers wherein a higher level of expression indicates a bacterial infection, and a second set of biomarkers wherein a higher level of expression indicates a viral infection, wherein the set of viral response genes includes one or more genes selected from the group of OAS2, CUL1, ISG15, CHST12, IFIT1, SIGLEC1, ADA, MX1, RSAD2, IFI44L, GZMB, KCTD14, LY6E, IFI44, HESX1, OASL, OAS1, OAS3, EIF2AK2, DDX60, DNMT1, HERC5, IFIH1, SAMD9, IFI6, IFIT3, IFIT5, XAF1, ISG20, PARP12, IFIT2, DHX58, STAT1, and the set of bacterial response genes includes one or more genes selected from the group of SLC12A9, ACPP, STATSB, EMR1, FLII, PTAFR, NRD1, PLP2, DYSF, TWF2, SORT1, TSPO, TBXAS1, ACAA1, S100A12, PGD, LAPTM5, NINJ2, DOK3, SORL1, RAB31, IMPA2, LTA4H, TALDO1, TKT, PYGL, CETP, PROS1, RTN3, CAT, CYBRD1; (b) analyzing the levels of expression of the set of viral response genes and the set of bacterial response genes and comparing with respective reference value ranges for a noninfected control subject; (c) calculating a bacterial/viral metascore for the patient based on the levels of expression of the set of viral response genes and the set of bacterial response genes; and (d) displaying information regarding the diagnosis of the patient.

In one embodiment, the invention is drawn to a diagnostic system performing the computer implemented method, the diagnostic system including (a) a storage component for storing data, wherein the storage component has instructions for determining the diagnosis of the patient stored therein; (b) a computer processor for processing data, wherein the computer processor is coupled to the storage component and configured to execute the instructions stored in the storage component in order to receive patient data and analyze patient data according to one or more algorithms; and (c) a display component for displaying information regarding the diagnosis of the patient.

These and other embodiments of the subject invention will readily occur to those of skill in the art in view of the disclosure herein.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIGS. 1A and 1B show summary Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curves for (FIG. 1A) discovery and (FIG. 1B) direct validation datasets for the bacterial/viral metascore. A summary ROC curve is shown in black, with 95% confidence intervals in dark grey.

FIG. 2 shows bacterial/viral scores for COCONUT co-normalized whole blood discovery datasets. PBMCs datasets are left out of FIG. 2 because PBMC datasets are expected to have different gene levels than whole blood. The global AUC across all whole blood discovery datasets is 0.92. Score distribution by dataset (dark gray=bacterial, light gray=viral), individual gene levels, and housekeeping genes (greyscale) are shown. The dotted line shows a possible global threshold. The width of each violin corresponds to the distribution of scores within the given dataset. The vertical bar within each violin spans the 25^(th)-75^(th) percentile, and the middle white dash shows the mean score. Housekeeping genes (POLG, ATP6V1B1, and PEG10) show expected invariance across datasets post-COCONUT-normalization.

FIGS. 3A-3C show an integrated antibiotics decision model (IADM) across COCONUT-co-normalized public gene expression data that matched inclusion criteria. FIG. 3A shows an IADM schematic. FIG. 3B shows a distribution of scores and cutoffs for IADM in COCONUT-co-normalized data. FIG. 3C shows a confusion matrix for diagnosis. Bacterial infection sensitivity: 94.0%; Bacterial infection specificity: 59.8%; Viral infection sensitivity: 53.0%; Viral infection specificity: 90.6%.

FIGS. 4A-4E show targeted NanoString gene expression data from children with SIRS/sepsis from the GPSSSI cohort never tested with microarrays (total N=96, of which SIRS=36, bacterial sepsis=49, viral sepsis=11). FIG. 4A shows the breakdown of infected patients by organism type. FIGS. 4B and 4C show ROC curves for the SMS and the bacterial/viral metascore. FIG. 4D shows the distribution of scores and cutoffs for IADM. FIG. 4E shows a confusion matrix for IADM; Bacterial infection sensitivity: 89.7%; Bacterial infection specificity: 70.0%; Viral infection sensitivity: 54.5%; Viral infection specificity: 96.5%.

FIGS. 5A and 5B show that the Sepsis MetaScore (SMS) alone cannot determine pathogen type. Diagram in (FIG. 5A) indicates how a decision model could be built. FIG. 5B shows the distribution of SMS in patients with bacterial versus viral infections. Of 11 datasets, there were only three for which the SMS distribution showed a significant difference between bacterial and viral infections.

FIG. 6 shows a schematic of the workflow for the multi-cohort analysis and discovery of the bacterial-viral metasignature.

FIG. 7 shows Forest plots of the genes in the bacterial/viral metascore across the discovery datasets. The x axes represent standardized mean difference between bacterial and viral infection samples, computed as Hedges' g, in log2 scale. The size of the black rectangles is inversely proportional to the standard error of mean in the study. Whiskers represent the 95% confidence interval. The light gray diamonds represent overall, combined mean difference for a given gene. Width of the diamonds represents the 95% confidence interval of overall combined mean difference.

FIG. 8 shows Forest plots of the random-effects meta-analysis of the summary ROC parameters alpha and beta for the discovery datasets. Alpha roughly controls the distance from the line of identity (higher alpha=higher AUC) and beta controls the skew of the actual ROC curve (beta=0 means no skew).

FIG. 9 shows Forest plots of the random-effects meta-analysis of the summary ROC parameters alpha and beta for the validation datasets. Alpha roughly controls the distance from the line of identity (higher alpha=higher AUC) and beta controls the skew of the actual ROC curve (beta=0 means no skew).

FIG. 10 shows the bacterial/viral metascore ROC in GSE53166, monocyte-derived dendritic cells stimulated in vitro with LPS or influenza virus, total N=75 (39 LPS, 36 influenza virus).

FIG. 11 shows a schematic of COCONUT co-normalization. Light gray indicates healthy (‘H’), medium gray means viral (‘V’) and dark gray means bacterial (‘B’). Different crosshatchings are meant to indicate different batch effects. See Methods for formal mathematical details.

FIGS. 12A and 12B show data of whole blood discovery datasets. PBMCs datasets are left out of FIGS. 12A and 12B because PBMC datasets are expected to have different gene levels than whole blood. FIG. 12A shows raw data and FIG. 12B shows COCONUT co-normalized data. COCONUT co-normalization resets each gene to be at the same location and scale for control patients. Distribution of a gene within a dataset is unchanged (median difference in T-statistics for healthy versus disease within datasets is 0, range (−1e-13, 1e-13), across all genes and all datasets). Housekeeping gene ATP6V1B1 exhibits expected invariance with respect to disease, and is invariant across datasets after normalization. A gene expected to be induced by disease, e.g., CEACAM1, exhibits invariance across healthy controls, but can vary in disease states between datasets. Upper color bars indicate datasets; lower color bar indicate disease class.

FIG. 13 shows the bacterial/viral score in global ROC of COCONUT co-normalization of whole blood validation datasets. The global AUC across all whole blood validation datasets is 0.93. The score distribution by dataset (dark gray violins=bacterial, light gray violins=viral) and housekeeping genes (greyscale) are shown. The width of each violin corresponds to the distribution of scores within the given dataset. The vertical bar within each violin spans the 25^(th)-75^(th) percentile, and the middle white dash shows the mean score. The dotted line shows a possible global threshold. Housekeeping genes (POLG, ATP6V1B1, and PEG10) show expected invariance across datasets post-COCONUT-normalization.

FIG. 14 shows the bacterial/viral score in global ROC of non-co-normalized whole blood discovery datasets. PBMCs datasets are left out of FIG. 14 because PBMC datasets are expected to have different gene levels than whole blood. The global AUC across all whole blood discovery datasets is 0.93. The score distribution by dataset (dark gray violins=bacterial, light gray violins=viral) and housekeeping genes (greyscale) are shown. The width of each violin corresponds to the distribution of scores within the given dataset. The vertical bar within each violin spans the 25^(th)-75^(th) percentile, and the middle white dash shows the mean score. Note the highly varying locations and scales of the housekeeping genes POLG, ATP6V1B1, and PEG10.

FIG. 15 shows the bacterial/viral score in global ROC of non-co-normalized whole blood validation datasets. PBMCs datasets are left out of FIG. 15 because PBMC datasets are expected to have different gene levels than whole blood. The score distribution by dataset (dark gray violins =bacterial, light gray violins=viral) and housekeeping genes (greyscale) are shown. The width of each violin corresponds to the distribution of scores within the given dataset. The vertical bar within each violin spans the 25^(th)-75^(th) percentile, and the middle white dash shows the mean score. Note the highly varying locations and scales of the housekeeping genes POLG, ATP6V1B1, and PEG10.

FIG. 16 shows the bacterial/viral score in global ROC of COCONUT co-normalization of PBMC validation datasets. PBMCs datasets are examined separately because PBMC datasets are expected to have different gene levels than whole blood. The global AUC across all PBMC validation datasets is 0.92. The score distribution by dataset (dark gray violins=bacterial, light gray violins=viral) and housekeeping genes (greyscale) are shown. The dotted line shows a possible global threshold. The width of each violin corresponds to the distribution of scores within the given dataset. The vertical bar within each violin spans the 25^(th)-75^(th) percentile, and the middle white dash shows the mean score. Housekeeping genes (POLG, ATP6V1B1) show expected invariance across datasets post-COCONUT-normalization.

FIG. 17 shows the bacterial/viral score in global ROC of non-co-normalized PBMC validation datasets. PBMCs datasets are examined separately because PBMC datasets are expected to have different gene levels than whole blood. The score distribution by dataset (dark gray violins=bacterial, light gray violins=viral), individual gene levels, housekeeping genes (greyscale) are shown. The width of each violin corresponds to the distribution of scores within the given dataset. The vertical bar within each violin spans the 25^(th)-75^(th) percentile, and the middle white dash shows the mean score. Note the highly varying locations and scales of the housekeeping genes POLG and ATP6V1B1.

FIG. 18 shows the distribution of mean AUCs across all discovery datasets for 10,000 randomly chosen 2-gene pairs.

FIGS. 19A-19D show the effects of age on the Sepsis MetaScore in COCONUT co-normalized data. FIG. 19A shows age versus SMS by pathogen type, to assess whether pathogen type is driving age differences in SMS. FIG. 19B shows the log10(age) vs. SMS by pathogen type, showing that at extremes of age, the SMS may have a different attainable maximum. FIG. 19C shows the log10(age) versus SMS by dataset, demonstrating that the relationship between age and SMS is dataset-independent. FIGS. 19A-19C only include infected patient samples; FIG. 19D shows both healthy and noninfected SIRS samples in addition to show the baseline across ages. In all cases, the GSE25504 age data are randomly distributed according to the mean age given in their manuscript, roughly 2 weeks+/−1 week, to show data density. All ages=0 were reset as age=1/365.

FIGS. 20A and 20B show the Sepsis MetaScore across all whole blood data (both discovery and validation) before (FIG. 20B) and after COCONUT co-normalization (FIG. 20A). The global AUC is 0.86 (95% CI 0.84-0.89) after COCONUT co-normalization. The score distribution by dataset (light gray violins=non-infected inflammation, dark gray violins=infections/sepsis) and housekeeping genes (greyscale) are shown. The dotted line shows a possible global threshold. The width of each violin corresponds to the distribution of scores within the given dataset. The vertical bar within each violin spans the 25^(th)-75^(th) percentile, and the middle white dash shows the mean score. Note the invariance of the housekeeping genes POLG, ATP6V1B1, and PEG10 across datasets in FIG. 20A post-COCONUT-normalization, with highly varying locations and scales of the housekeeping genes prior to normalization in FIG. 20B.

FIGS. 21A and 21B show the IADM across COCONUT-co-normalized public gene expression data including healthy controls. The included datasets (and the score cutoffs used) are the same as those in FIGS. 3A-3C. FIG. 21A shows the distribution of scores for IADM in COCONUT-co-normalized data. FIG. 21B shows a confusion matrix for diagnosis. Bacterial infection sensitivity: 94.2%; Bacterial infection specificity: 68.5%; Viral infection sensitivity: 53.0%; Viral infection specificity: 94.1%. ‘SIRS’ refers to non-infected inflammation.

FIG. 22 shows NPV and PPV versus prevalence for a diagnostic test with 94.0% sensitivity and 59.8% specificity. Red lines show an NPV of 98.3% at a prevalence of 15%, as a rough estimate for real case-rates of infection.

FIGS. 23A-23D show results for the GSE63990 dataset (adults with acute respiratory infections). FIGS. 23A and 23B show ROC curves for the Sepsis MetaScore and the bacterial/viral metascore. FIG. 23C shows the distribution of scores and cutoffs for IADM. FIG. 23D shows a confusion matrix for IADM; Bacterial infection sensitivity: 94.3%; Bacterial infection specificity: 52.2%; Viral infection sensitivity: 52.2%; Viral infection specificity: 94.3%.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The practice of the present invention will employ, unless otherwise indicated, conventional methods of pharmacology, chemistry, biochemistry, recombinant DNA techniques and immunology, within the skill of the art. Such techniques are explained fully in the literature. See, e.g., J. E. Bennett, R. Dolin, and M. J. Blaser Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases (Saunders, 8^(th) edition, 2014); J. R. Brown Sepsis: Symptoms, Diagnosis and Treatment (Public Health in the 21^(st) Century Series, Nova Science Publishers, Inc., 2013); Sepsis and Non-infectious Systemic Inflammation: From Biology to Critical Care (J. Cavaillon, C. Adrie eds., Wiley-Blackwell, 2008); Sepsis: Diagnosis, Management and Health Outcomes (Allergies and Infectious Diseases, N. Khardori ed., Nova Science Pub Inc., 2014); Handbook of Experimental Immunology, Vols. I-IV (D. M. Weir and C. C. Blackwell eds., Blackwell Scientific Publications); A. L. Lehninger, Biochemistry (Worth Publishers, Inc., current addition); Sambrook, et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual (3^(rd) Edition, 2001); Methods In Enzymology (S. Colowick and N. Kaplan eds., Academic Press, Inc.).

All publications, patents and patent applications cited herein, whether supra or infra, are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties.

I. DEFINITIONS

In describing the present invention, the following terms will be employed, and are intended to be defined as indicated below.

It must be noted that, as used in this specification and the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural referents unless the content clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to “a biomarker” includes a mixture of two or more biomarkers, and the like.

The term “about,” particularly in reference to a given quantity, is meant to encompass deviations of plus or minus five percent.

The term Area Under the Curve (AUC) as used herein will be understood to refer to the area under a Receiving Operating Characteristic Curve (ROC Curve).

A “biomarker” in the context of the present invention refers to a biological compound, such as a polynucleotide which is differentially expressed in a sample taken from patients having an infection as compared to a comparable sample taken from control subjects (e.g., a person with a negative diagnosis, normal or healthy subject, or non-infected subject). The biomarker can be a nucleic acid, a fragment of a nucleic acid, a polynucleotide, or an oligonucleotide that can be detected and/or quantified. Biomarkers include polynucleotides comprising nucleotide sequences from genes or RNA transcripts of genes, including but not limited to, IFI27, JUP, LAX1, OAS2, CUL1, ISG15, CHST12, IFIT1, SIGLEC1, ADA, MX1, RSAD2, IFI44L, GZMB, KCTD14, LY6E, IFI44, HESX1, OASL, OAS1, OAS3, EIF2AK2, DDX60, DNMT1, HERC5, IFIH1, SAMD9, IFI6, IFIT3, IFIT5, XAF1, ISG20, PARP12, IFIT2, DHX58, STAT1, HK3, TNIP1, GPAA1, CTSB, SLC12A9, ACPP, STAT5B, EMR1, FLII, PTAFR, NRD1, PLP2, DYSF, TWF2, SORT1, TSPO, TBXAS1, ACAA1, S100A12, PGD, LAPTM5, NINJ2, DOK3, SORL1, RAB31, IMPA2, LTA4H, TALDO1, TKT, PYGL, CETP, PROS1, RTN3, CAT, CYBRD1, CEACAM1, ZDHHC19, C9orf95, GNA15, BATF, C3AR1, KIAA1370, TGFBI, MTCH1, RPGRIP1, and HLA-DPB1.

“Viral response genes” refer to genes that are differentially expressed in a sample taken from patients having a viral infection as compared to a comparable sample taken from control subjects (e.g., a person with a negative diagnosis, normal or healthy subject, or non-infected subject). Viral response genes include, but are not limited to, IFI27, JUP, LAX1, OAS2, CUL1, ISG15, CHST12, IFIT1, SIGLEC1, ADA, MX1, RSAD2, IFI44L, GZMB, KCTD14, LY6E, IFI44, HESX1, OASL, OAS1, OAS3, EIF2AK2, DDX60, DNMT1, HERC5, IFIH1, SAMD9, IFI6, IFIT3, IFIT5, XAF1, ISG20, PARP12, IFIT2, DHX58, and STAT1.

“Bacterial response genes” refer to genes that are differentially expressed in a sample taken from patients having a bacterial infection as compared to a comparable sample taken from control subjects (e.g., a person with a negative diagnosis, normal or healthy subject, or non-infected subject). Bacterial response genes include, but are not limited to, HK3, TNIP1, GPAA1, CTSB, SLC12A9, ACPP, STAT5B, EMR1, FLII, PTAFR, NRD1, PLP2, DYSF, TWF2, SORT1, TSPO, TBXAS1, ACAA1, S100A12, PGD, LAPTMS, NINJ2, DOK3, SORL1, RAB31, IMPA2, LTA4H, TALDO1, TKT, PYGL, CETP, PROS1, RTN3, CAT, and CYBRD1.

“Sepsis response genes” refer to genes that are differentially expressed in a sample taken from patients having sepsis or an infection as compared to a comparable sample taken from control subjects (e.g., a person with a negative diagnosis, normal or healthy subject, or non-infected subject). Sepsis response genes include, but are not limited to, CEACAM1, ZDHHC19, C9orf95, GNA15, BATF, C3AR1, KIAA1370, TGFBI, MTCH1, RPGRIP1, and HLA-DPB1.

The terms “polypeptide” and “protein” refer to a polymer of amino acid residues and are not limited to a minimum length. Thus, peptides, oligopeptides, dimers, multimers, and the like, are included within the definition. Both full-length proteins and fragments thereof are encompassed by the definition. The terms also include postexpression modifications of the polypeptide, for example, glycosylation, acetylation, phosphorylation, hydroxylation, oxidation, and the like.

The terms “polynucleotide,” “oligonucleotide,” “nucleic acid” and “nucleic acid molecule” are used herein to include a polymeric form of nucleotides of any length, either ribonucleotides or deoxyribonucleotides. This term refers only to the primary structure of the molecule. Thus, the term includes triple-, double- and single-stranded DNA, as well as triple-, double- and single-stranded RNA. It also includes modifications, such as by methylation and/or by capping, and unmodified forms of the polynucleotide. More particularly, the terms “polynucleotide,” “oligonucleotide,” “nucleic acid” and “nucleic acid molecule” include polydeoxyribonucleotides (containing 2-deoxy-D-ribose), polyribonucleotides (containing D-ribose), and any other type of polynucleotide which is an N- or C-glycoside of a purine or pyrimidine base. There is no intended distinction in length between the terms “polynucleotide,” “oligonucleotide,” “nucleic acid” and “nucleic acid molecule,” and these terms are used interchangeably.

The phrase “differentially expressed” refers to differences in the quantity and/or the frequency of a biomarker present in a sample taken from patients having, for example, an infection (e.g., viral infection or bacterial infection) as compared to a control subject or non-infected subject. For example, a biomarker can be a polynucleotide which is present at an elevated level or at a decreased level in samples of patients with an infection (e.g., viral infection or bacterial infection) compared to samples of control subjects. Alternatively, a biomarker can be a polynucleotide which is detected at a higher frequency or at a lower frequency in samples of patients with an infection (e.g., viral infection or bacterial infection) compared to samples of control subjects. A biomarker can be differentially present in terms of quantity, frequency or both.

A polynucleotide is differentially expressed between two samples if the amount of the polynucleotide in one sample is statistically significantly different from the amount of the polynucleotide in the other sample. For example, a polynucleotide is differentially expressed in two samples if it is present at least about 120%, at least about 130%, at least about 150%, at least about 180%, at least about 200%, at least about 300%, at least about 500%, at least about 700%, at least about 900%, or at least about 1000% greater than it is present in the other sample, or if it is detectable in one sample and not detectable in the other.

Alternatively or additionally, a polynucleotide is differentially expressed in two sets of samples if the frequency of detecting the polynucleotide in samples of patients' suffering from sepsis, is statistically significantly higher or lower than in the control samples. For example, a polynucleotide is differentially expressed in two sets of samples if it is detected at least about 120%, at least about 130%, at least about 150%, at least about 180%, at least about 200%, at least about 300%, at least about 500%, at least about 700%, at least about 900%, or at least about 1000% more frequently or less frequently observed in one set of samples than the other set of samples.

A “similarity value” is a number that represents the degree of similarity between two things being compared. For example, a similarity value may be a number that indicates the overall similarity between a patient's expression profile using specific phenotype-related biomarkers and reference value ranges for the biomarkers in one or more control samples or a reference expression profile (e.g., the similarity to a “viral infection” expression profile or a “bacterial infection” expression profile). The similarity value may be expressed as a similarity metric, such as a correlation coefficient, or may simply be expressed as the expression level difference, or the aggregate of the expression level differences, between levels of biomarkers in a patient sample and a control sample or reference expression profile.

The terms “subject,” “individual,” and “patient,” are used interchangeably herein and refer to any mammalian subject for whom diagnosis, prognosis, treatment, or therapy is desired, particularly humans. Other subjects may include cattle, dogs, cats, guinea pigs, rabbits, rats, mice, horses, and so on. In some cases, the methods of the invention find use in experimental animals, in veterinary application, and in the development of animal models for disease, including, but not limited to, rodents including mice, rats, and hamsters; and primates.

As used herein, a “biological sample” refers to a sample of tissue, cells, or fluid isolated from a subject, including but not limited to, for example, blood, buffy coat, plasma, serum, blood cells (e.g., peripheral blood mononucleated cells (PBMCS)), fecal matter, urine, bone marrow, bile, spinal fluid, lymph fluid, samples of the skin, external secretions of the skin, respiratory, intestinal, and genitourinary tracts, tears, saliva, milk, organs, biopsies and also samples of in vitro cell culture constituents, including, but not limited to, conditioned media resulting from the growth of cells and tissues in culture medium, e.g., recombinant cells, and cell components.

A “test amount” of a biomarker refers to an amount of a biomarker present in a sample being tested. A test amount can be either an absolute amount (e.g., μg/ml) or a relative amount (e.g., relative intensity of signals).

A “diagnostic amount” of a biomarker refers to an amount of a biomarker in a subject's sample that is consistent with a diagnosis of an infection (e.g., viral infection or bacterial infection). A diagnostic amount can be either an absolute amount (e.g., μg/ml) or a relative amount (e.g., relative intensity of signals).

A “control amount” of a biomarker can be any amount or a range of amount which is to be compared against a test amount of a biomarker. For example, a control amount of a biomarker can be the amount of a biomarker in a person without an infection (e.g., viral infection or bacterial infection). A control amount can be either in absolute amount (e.g., μg/ml) or a relative amount (e.g., relative intensity of signals).

The term “antibody” encompasses polyclonal and monoclonal antibody preparations, as well as preparations including hybrid antibodies, altered antibodies, chimeric antibodies and, humanized antibodies, as well as: hybrid (chimeric) antibody molecules (see, for example, Winter et al. (1991) Nature 349:293-299; and U.S. Pat. No. 4,816,567); F(ab′)₂ and F(ab) fragments; F_(v) molecules (noncovalent heterodimers, see, for example, Inbar et al. (1972) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 69:2659-2662; and Ehrlich et al. (1980) Biochem 19:4091-4096); single-chain Fv molecules (sFv) (see, e.g., Huston et al. (1988) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 85:5879-5883); dimeric and trimeric antibody fragment constructs; minibodies (see, e.g., Pack et al. (1992) Biochem 31:1579-1584; Cumber et al. (1992) J Immunology 149B:120-126); humanized antibody molecules (see, e.g., Riechmann et al. (1988) Nature 332:323-327; Verhoeyan et al. (1988) Science 239:1534-1536; and U.K. Patent Publication No. GB 2,276,169, published 21 Sep. 1994); and, any functional fragments obtained from such molecules, wherein such fragments retain specific-binding properties of the parent antibody molecule.

“Detectable moieties” or “detectable labels” contemplated for use in the invention include, but are not limited to, radioisotopes, fluorescent dyes such as fluorescein, phycoerythrin, Cy-3, Cy-5, allophycoyanin, DAPI, Texas Red, rhodamine, Oregon green, Lucifer yellow, and the like, green fluorescent protein (GFP), red fluorescent protein (DsRed), Cyan Fluorescent Protein (CFP), Yellow Fluorescent Protein (YFP), Cerianthus Orange Fluorescent Protein (cOFP), alkaline phosphatase (AP), beta-lactamase, chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT), adenosine deaminase (ADA), aminoglycoside phosphotransferase (neo^(r), G418^(r)) dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR), hygromycin-B-phosphotransferase (HPH), thymidine kinase (TK), lacZ (encoding β-galactosidase), and xanthine guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (XGPRT), beta-glucuronidase (gus), Placental Alkaline Phosphatase (PLAP), Secreted Embryonic alkaline phosphatase (SEAP), or firefly or bacterial luciferase (LUC). Enzyme tags are used with their cognate substrate. The terms also include color-coded microspheres of known fluorescent light intensities (see e.g., microspheres with xMAP technology produced by Luminex (Austin, Tex.); microspheres containing quantum dot nanocrystals, for example, containing different ratios and combinations of quantum dot colors (e.g., Qdot nanocrystals produced by Life Technologies (Carlsbad, Calif.); glass coated metal nanoparticles (see e.g., SERS nanotags produced by Nanoplex Technologies, Inc. (Mountain View, Calif.); barcode materials (see e.g., sub-micron sized striped metallic rods such as Nanobarcodes produced by Nanoplex Technologies, Inc.), encoded microparticles with colored bar codes (see e.g., CellCard produced by Vitra Bioscience, vitrabio.com), and glass microparticles with digital holographic code images (see e.g., CyVera microbeads produced by Illumina (San Diego, Calif.). As with many of the standard procedures associated with the practice of the invention, skilled artisans will be aware of additional labels that can be used.

“Developing a classifier” refers to using input variables to generate an algorithm or classifier capable of distinguishing between two or more states.

“Diagnosis” as used herein generally includes determination as to whether a subject is likely affected by a given disease, disorder or dysfunction. The skilled artisan often makes a diagnosis on the basis of one or more diagnostic indicators, i.e., a biomarker, the presence, absence, or amount of which is indicative of the presence or absence of the disease, disorder or dysfunction.

“Prognosis” as used herein generally refers to a prediction of the probable course and outcome of a clinical condition or disease. A prognosis of a patient is usually made by evaluating factors or symptoms of a disease that are indicative of a favorable or unfavorable course or outcome of the disease. It is understood that the term “prognosis” does not necessarily refer to the ability to predict the course or outcome of a condition with 100% accuracy. Instead, the skilled artisan will understand that the term “prognosis” refers to an increased probability that a certain course or outcome will occur; that is, that a course or outcome is more likely to occur in a patient exhibiting a given condition, when compared to those individuals not exhibiting the condition.

“Substantially purified” refers to nucleic acid molecules or proteins that are removed from their natural environment and are isolated or separated, and are at least about 60% free, preferably about 75% free, and most preferably about 90% free, from other components with which they are naturally associated.

II. MODES OF CARRYING OUT THE INVENTION

Before describing the present invention in detail, it is to be understood that this invention is not limited to particular formulations or process parameters as such may, of course, vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments of the invention only, and is not intended to be limiting.

Although a number of methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice of the present invention, the preferred materials and methods are described herein.

The invention is based on the discovery of biomarkers that can be used for diagnosis of an infection (see Example 1). In particular, the invention relates to the use of biomarkers that can be used to determine whether a patient with acute inflammation has a bacterial or viral infection that would benefit from treatment with an antibiotic or antiviral agent. In order to further an understanding of the invention, a more detailed discussion is provided below regarding the identified biomarkers and methods of using them in diagnosis and treatment of infections.

A. Biomarkers

Biomarkers that can be used in the practice of the invention include polynucleotides comprising nucleotide sequences from genes or RNA transcripts of genes, including “viral response genes” that are differentially expressed in patients having a viral infection compared to control subjects (e.g., a person with a negative diagnosis, normal or healthy subject, or non-infected subject not having a viral infection), such as, but not limited to, IFI27, JUP, LAX1, OAS2, CUL1, ISG15, CHST12, IFIT1, SIGLEC1, ADA, MX1, RSAD2, IFI44L, GZMB, KCTD14, LY6E, IFI44, HESX1, OASL, OAS1, OAS3, EIF2AK2, DDX60, DNMT1, HERC5, IFIH1, SAMD9, IFI6, IFIT3, IFIT5, XAF1, ISG20, PARP12, IFIT2, DHX58, and STAT1; “bacterial response genes” that are differentially expressed in patients having a bacterial infection compared to control subjects (e.g., a person with a negative diagnosis, normal or healthy subject, or non-infected subject not having a bacterial infection), such as, but not limited to, HK3, TNIP1, GPAA1, CTSB, SLC12A9, ACPP, STAT5B, EMR1, FLII, PTAFR, NRD1, PLP2, DYSF, TWF2, SORT1, TSPO, TBXAS1, ACAA1, S100A12, PGD, LAPTM5, NINJ2, DOK3, SORL1, RAB31, IMPA2, LTA4H, TALDO1, TKT, PYGL, CETP, PROS1, RTN3, CAT, and CYBRD1; and “sepsis response genes” that are differentially expressed in patients having sepsis or an infection compared to control subjects (e.g., a person with a negative diagnosis, normal or healthy subject, or non-infected subject not having sepsis), such as, but not limited to, CEACAM1, ZDHHC19, C9orf95, GNA15, BATF, C3AR1, KIAA1370, TGFBI, MTCH1, RPGRIP1, and HLA-DPB1.

In one aspect, the invention includes a method of diagnosing an infection in a patient. The method comprises a) obtaining a biological sample from the patient; b) measuring the levels of expression in the biological sample of a set of viral response genes that show differential expression associated with a viral infection and a set of bacterial response genes that show differential expression associated with a bacterial infection; and c) analyzing the levels of expression of the viral response genes and the bacterial response genes in conjunction with respective reference value ranges.

When analyzing the levels of biomarkers in a biological sample, the reference value ranges can represent the levels of one or more biomarkers found in one or more samples of one or more subjects without an infection (e.g., healthy subject or non-infected subject). Alternatively, the reference values can represent the levels of one or more biomarkers found in one or more samples of one or more subjects with a viral infection or a bacterial infection. In certain embodiments, the levels of the biomarkers are compared to time-matched reference values ranges for non-infected or infected subjects.

In certain embodiments, the set of viral response genes and the set of bacterial response genes are selected from the group consisting of: a) a set of viral response genes comprising IF127, JUP, and LAX1 and a set of bacterial response genes comprising HK3, TNIP1, GPAA1, and CTSB; b) a set of viral response genes comprising OAS2 and CUL1 and a set of bacterial response genes comprising SLC12A9, ACPP, STAT5B; c) a set of viral response genes comprising ISG15 and CHST12 and a set of bacterial response genes comprising EMR1 and FLII; d) a set of viral response genes comprising IFIT1, SIGLEC1, and ADA and a set of bacterial response genes comprising PTAFR, NRD1, PLP2; e) a set of viral response genes comprising MX1 and a set of bacterial response genes comprising DYSF, TWF2; f) a set of viral response genes comprising RSAD2 and a set of bacterial response genes comprising SORT1 and TSPO; g) a set of viral response genes comprising IFI44L, GZMB, and KCTD14 and a set of bacterial response genes comprising TBXAS1, ACAA1, and S100A12; h) a set of viral response genes comprising LY6E and a set of bacterial response genes comprising PGD and LAPTM5; i) a set of viral response genes comprising IFI44, HESX1, and OASL and a set of bacterial response genes comprising NINJ2, DOK3, SORL1, and RAB31; and j) a set of viral response genes comprising OAS1 and a set of bacterial response genes comprising IMPA2 and LTA4H.

The biological sample obtained from the patient to be diagnosed is typically whole blood or blood cells (e.g., PBMCS), but can be any sample from bodily fluids, tissue or cells that contain the expressed biomarkers. A “control” sample, as used herein, refers to a biological sample, such as a bodily fluid, tissue, or cells that are not diseased. That is, a control sample is obtained from a normal or non-infected subject (e.g. an individual known to not have a viral infection, bacterial infection, sepsis, or inflammation). A biological sample can be obtained from a patient by conventional techniques. For example, blood can be obtained by venipuncture, and solid tissue samples can be obtained by surgical techniques according to methods well known in the art.

In certain embodiments, a panel of biomarkers is used for diagnosis of an infection. Biomarker panels of any size can be used in the practice of the invention. Biomarker panels for diagnosing an infection typically comprise at least 3 biomarkers and up to 30 biomarkers, including any number of biomarkers in between, such as 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, or 30 biomarkers. In certain embodiments, the invention includes a biomarker panel comprising at least 3, or at least 4, or at least 5, or at least 6, or at least 7, or at least 8, or at least 9, or at least 10, or at least 11 or more biomarkers. Although smaller biomarker panels are usually more economical, larger biomarker panels (i.e., greater than 30 biomarkers) have the advantage of providing more detailed information and can also be used in the practice of the invention.

In certain embodiments, the invention includes a panel of biomarkers for diagnosing an infection comprising one or more polynucleotides comprising a nucleotide sequence from a gene or an RNA transcript of a gene selected from the group consisting of IFI27, JUP, LAX1, HK3, TNIP1, GPAA1, and CTSB. In another embodiment, the panel of biomarkers further comprises one or more polynucleotides comprising a nucleotide sequence from a gene or an RNA transcript of a gene selected from the group consisting of CEACAM1, ZDHHC19, C9orf95, GNA15, BATF, C3AR1, KIAA1370, TGFBI, MTCH1, RPGRIP1, and HLA-DPB1.

In certain embodiments, biomarkers for distinguishing viral and bacterial infections, as described herein, are combined with additional biomarkers that are capable of distinguishing whether inflammation in a subject is caused by an infection or a noninfectious source of inflammation (e.g., traumatic injury, surgery, autoimmune disease, thrombosis, or systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS)). A first diagnostic test is used to determine whether the acute inflammation is caused by an infectious or non-infectious source, and if the source of inflammation is an infection, a second diagnostic test is used to determine whether the infection is a viral infection or a bacterial infection that will benefit from treatment with either antiviral agents or antibiotics, respectively.

In one embodiment, the invention includes a method of diagnosing and treating a patient having inflammation, the method comprising: a) obtaining a biological sample from the patient; b) measuring levels of expression of IFI27, JUP, LAX1, HK3, TNIP1, GPAA1, CTSB, CEACAM1, ZDHHC19, C9orf95, GNA15, BATF, C3AR1, KIAA1370, TGFBI, MTCH1, RPGRIP1, and HLA-DPB1 biomarkers in the biological sample; and c) first analyzing the levels of expression of each biomarker in conjunction with respective reference value ranges for the biomarkers, wherein increased levels of expression of the CEACAM1, ZDHHC19, C9orf95, GNA15, BATF, and C3AR1 biomarkers and decreased levels of expression of the KIAA1370, TGFBI, MTCH1, RPGRIP1, and HLA-DPB1 biomarkers compared to the reference value ranges for the biomarkers for a non-infected control subject indicate that the patient has an infection, and absence of differential expression of the CEACAM1, ZDHHC19, C9orf95, GNA15, BATF, C3AR1, KIAA1370, TGFBI, MTCH1, RPGRIP1, and HLA-DPB1 biomarkers compared to the non-infected control subject indicates that the patient does not have an infection; d) second analyzing the levels of expression of the IFI27, JUP, LAX1, HK3, TNIP1, GPAA1, and CTSB biomarkers, if the patient is diagnosed as having an infection, wherein increased levels of expression of the IFI27, JUP, LAX1 biomarkers compared to reference value ranges for the biomarkers for a control subject indicate that the patient has a viral infection, and increased levels of expression of the HK3, TNIP1, GPAA1, CTSB biomarkers compared to the reference value ranges for the biomarkers for the control subject indicate that the patient has a bacterial infection; and e) administering an effective amount of an anti-viral agent to the patient if the patient is diagnosed with a viral infection, or administering an effective amount of an antibiotic to the patient if the patient is diagnosed with a bacterial infection.

In another embodiment, the method further comprises calculating a sepsis metascore for the patient, wherein a sepsis metascore that is higher than the reference value ranges for a non-infected control subject indicates that the patient has an infection, and a sepsis metascore that is within the reference value ranges for a non-infected control subject indicates that the patient has a non-infectious inflammatory condition.

In another embodiment, the method further comprises calculating a bacterial/viral metascore for the patient if the patient is diagnosed as having an infection, wherein a positive bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a viral infection and a negative bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a bacterial infection.

In another embodiment, the invention includes a method of treating a patient suspected of having an infection, the method comprising: a) receiving information regarding the diagnosis of the patient according to a method described herein; and b) administering a therapeutically effective amount of an anti-viral agent if the patient is diagnosed with a viral infection or administering an effective amount of an antibiotic if the patient is diagnosed with a bacterial infection.

In certain embodiments, a patient diagnosed with a viral infection by a method described herein is administered a therapeutically effective dose of an antiviral agent, such as a broad-spectrum antiviral agent, an antiviral vaccine, a neuraminidase inhibitor (e.g., zanamivir (Relenza) and oseltamivir (Tamiflu)), a nucleoside analogue (e.g., acyclovir, zidovudine (AZT), and lamivudine), an antisense antiviral agent (e.g., phosphorothioate antisense antiviral agents (e.g., Fomivirsen (Vitravene) for cytomegalovirus retinitis), morpholino antisense antiviral agents), an inhibitor of viral uncoating (e.g., Amantadine and rimantadine for influenza, Pleconaril for rhinoviruses), an inhibitor of viral entry (e.g., Fuzeon for HIV), an inhibitor of viral assembly (e.g., Rifampicin), or an antiviral agent that stimulates the immune system (e.g., interferons). Exemplary antiviral agents include Abacavir, Aciclovir, Acyclovir, Adefovir, Amantadine, Amprenavir, Ampligen, Arbidol, Atazanavir, Atripla (fixed dose drug), Balavir, Cidofovir, Combivir (fixed dose drug), Dolutegravir, Darunavir, Delavirdine, Didanosine, Docosanol, Edoxudine, Efavirenz, Emtricitabine, Enfuvirtide, Entecavir, Ecoliever, Famciclovir, Fixed dose combination (antiretroviral), Fomivirsen, Fosamprenavir, Foscarnet, Fosfonet, Fusion inhibitor, Ganciclovir, Ibacitabine, Imunovir, Idoxuridine, Imiquimod, Indinavir, Inosine, Integrase inhibitor, Interferon type III, Interferon type II, Interferon type I, Interferon, Lamivudine, Lopinavir, Loviride, Maraviroc, Moroxydine, Methisazone, Nelfinavir, Nevirapine, Nexavir, Nitazoxanide, Nucleoside analogues, Novir, Oseltamivir (Tamiflu), Peginterferon alfa-2a, Penciclovir, Peramivir, Pleconaril, Podophyllotoxin, Protease inhibitor, Raltegravir, Reverse transcriptase inhibitor, Ribavirin, Rimantadine, Ritonavir, Pyramidine, Saquinavir, Sofosbuvir, Stavudine, Synergistic enhancer (antiretroviral), Telaprevir, Tenofovir, Tenofovir disoproxil, Tipranavir, Trifluridine, Trizivir, Tromantadine, Truvada, Valaciclovir (Valtrex), Valganciclovir, Vicriviroc, Vidarabine, Viramidine, Zalcitabine, Zanamivir (Relenza), and Zidovudine.

In certain embodiments, a patient diagnosed with a bacterial infection by a method described herein is administered a therapeutically effective dose of an antibiotic. Antibiotics may include broad spectrum, bactericidal, or bacteriostatic antibiotics. Exemplary antibiotics include aminoglycosides such as Amikacin, Amikin, Gentamicin, Garamycin, Kanamycin, Kantrex, Neomycin, Neo-Fradin, Netilmicin, Netromycin, Tobramycin, Nebcin, Paromomycin, Humatin, Streptomycin, Spectinomycin(Bs), and Trobicin; ansamycins such as Geldanamycin, Herbimycin, Rifaximin, and Xifaxan; carbacephems such as Loracarbef and Lorabid; carbapenems such as Ertapenem, Invanz, Doripenem, Doribax, Imipenem/Cilastatin, Primaxin, Meropenem, and Merrem; cephalosporins such as Cefadroxil, Duricef, Cefazolin, Ancef, Cefalotin or Cefalothin, Keflin, Cefalexin, Keflex, Cefaclor, Distaclor, Cefamandole, Mandol, Cefoxitin, Mefoxin, Cefprozil, Cefzil, Cefuroxime, Ceftin, Zinnat, Cefixime, Cefdinir, Cefditoren, Cefoperazone, Cefotaxime, Cefpodoxime, Ceftazidime, Ceftibuten, Ceftizoxime, Ceftriaxone, Cefepime, Maxipime, Ceftaroline fosamil, Teflaro, Ceftobiprole, and Zeftera; glycopeptides such as Teicoplanin, Targocid, Vancomycin, Vancocin, Telavancin, Vibativ, Dalbavancin, Dalvance, Oritavancin, and Orbactiv; lincosamides such as Clindamycin, Cleocin, Lincomycin, and Lincocin; lipopeptides such as Daptomycin and Cubicin; macrolides such as Azithromycin, Zithromax, Surnamed, Xithrone, Clarithromycin, Biaxin, Dirithromycin, Dynabac, Erythromycin, Erythocin, Erythroped, Roxithromycin, Troleandomycin, Tao, Telithromycin, Ketek, Spiramycin, and Rovamycine; monobactams such as Aztreonam and Azactam; nitrofurans such as Furazolidone, Furoxone, Nitrofurantoin, Macrodantin, and Macrobid; oxazolidinones such as Linezolid, Zyvox, VRSA, Posizolid, Radezolid, and Torezolid; penicillins such as Penicillin V, Veetids (Pen-Vee-K), Piperacillin, Pipracil, Penicillin G, Pfizerpen, Temocillin, Negaban, Ticarcillin, and Ticar; penicillin combinations such as Amoxicillin/clavulanate, Augmentin, Ampicillin/sulbactam, Unasyn, Piperacillin/tazobactam, Zosyn, Ticarcillin/clavulanate, and Timentin; polypeptides such as Bacitracin, Colistin, Coly-Mycin-S, and Polymyxin B; quinolones/fluoroquinolones such as Ciprofloxacin, Cipro, Ciproxin, Ciprobay, Enoxacin, Penetrex, Gatifloxacin, Tequin, Gemifloxacin, Factive, Levofloxacin, Levaquin, Lomefloxacin, Maxaquin, Moxifloxacin, Avelox, Nalidixic acid, NegGram, Norfloxacin, Noroxin, Ofloxacin, Floxin, Ocuflox Trovafloxacin, Trovan, Grepafloxacin, Raxar, Sparfloxacin, Zagam, Temafloxacin, and Omniflox; sulfonamides such as Amoxicillin, Novamox, Amoxil, Ampicillin, Principen, Azlocillin, Carbenicillin, Geocillin, Cloxacillin, Tegopen, Dicloxacillin, Dynapen, Flucloxacillin, Floxapen, Mezlocillin, Mezlin, Methicillin, Staphcillin, Nafcillin, Unipen, Oxacillin, Prostaphlin, Penicillin G, Pentids, Mafenide, Sulfamylon, Sulfacetamide, Sulamyd, Bleph-10, Sulfadiazine, Micro-Sulfon, Silver sulfadiazine, Silvadene, Sulfadimethoxine Di-Methox, Albon, Sulfamethizole, Thiosulfil Forte, Sulfamethoxazole, Gantanol, Sulfanilimide, Sulfasalazine, Azulfidine, Sulfisoxazole, Gantrisin, Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole (Co-trimoxazole) (TMP-SMX), Bactrim, Septra, Sulfonamidochrysoidine, and Prontosil; tetracyclines such as Demeclocycline, Declomycin, Doxycycline, Vibramycin, Minocycline, Minocin, tetracycline, Terramycin, Tetracycline and Sumycin, Achromycin V, and Steclin; drugs against mycobacteria such as Clofazimine, Lamprene, Dapsone, Avlosulfon, Capreomycin, Capastat, Cycloserine, Seromycin, Ethambutol, Myambutol, Ethionamide, Trecator, Isoniazid, I.N.H., Pyrazinamide, Aldinamide, Rifampicin, Rifadin, Rimactane, Rifabutin, Mycobutin, Rifapentine, Priftin, and Streptomycin; others antibiotics such as Arsphenamine, Salvarsan, Chloramphenicol, Chloromycetin, Fosfomycin, Monurol, Monuril, Fusidic acid, Fucidin, Metronidazole, Flagyl, Mupirocin, Bactroban, Platensimycin, Quinupristin/Dalfopristin, Synercid, Thiamphenicol, Tigecycline, Tigacyl, Tinidazole, Tindamax Fasigyn, Trimethoprim, Proloprim, and Trimpex.

B. Detecting and Measuring Biomarkers

It is understood that the biomarkers in a sample can be measured by any suitable method known in the art. Measurement of the expression level of a biomarker can be direct or indirect. For example, the abundance levels of RNAs or proteins can be directly quantitated. Alternatively, the amount of a biomarker can be determined indirectly by measuring abundance levels of cDNAs, amplified RNAs or DNAs, or by measuring quantities or activities of RNAs, proteins, or other molecules (e.g., metabolites) that are indicative of the expression level of the biomarker. The methods for measuring biomarkers in a sample have many applications. For example, one or more biomarkers can be measured to aid in the diagnosis of an infection, to determine the appropriate treatment for a subject, to monitor responses in a subject to treatment, or to identify therapeutic compounds that modulate expression of the biomarkers in vivo or in vitro.

Detecting Biomarker Polynucleotides

In one embodiment, the expression levels of the biomarkers are determined by measuring polynucleotide levels of the biomarkers. The levels of transcripts of specific biomarker genes can be determined from the amount of mRNA, or polynucleotides derived therefrom, present in a biological sample. Polynucleotides can be detected and quantitated by a variety of methods including, but not limited to, microarray analysis, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), Northern blot, serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE), RNA switches, and solid-state nanopore detection. See, e.g., Draghici Data Analysis Tools for DNA Microarrays, Chapman and Hall/CRC, 2003; Simon et al. Design and Analysis of DNA Microarray Investigations, Springer, 2004; Real-Time PCR: Current Technology and Applications, Logan, Edwards, and Saunders eds., Caister Academic Press, 2009; Bustin A-Z of Quantitative PCR (IUL Biotechnology, No. 5), International University Line, 2004; Velculescu et al. (1995) Science 270: 484-487; Matsumura et al. (2005) Cell. Microbiol. 7: 11-18; Serial Analysis of Gene Expression (SAGE): Methods and Protocols (Methods in Molecular Biology), Humana Press, 2008; herein incorporated by reference in their entireties.

In one embodiment, microarrays are used to measure the levels of biomarkers. An advantage of microarray analysis is that the expression of each of the biomarkers can be measured simultaneously, and microarrays can be specifically designed to provide a diagnostic expression profile for a particular disease or condition (e.g., sepsis).

Microarrays are prepared by selecting probes which comprise a polynucleotide sequence, and then immobilizing such probes to a solid support or surface. For example, the probes may comprise DNA sequences, RNA sequences, or copolymer sequences of DNA and RNA. The polynucleotide sequences of the probes may also comprise DNA and/or RNA analogues, or combinations thereof. For example, the polynucleotide sequences of the probes may be full or partial fragments of genomic DNA. The polynucleotide sequences of the probes may also be synthesized nucleotide sequences, such as synthetic oligonucleotide sequences. The probe sequences can be synthesized either enzymatically in vivo, enzymatically in vitro (e.g., by PCR), or non-enzymatically in vitro.

Probes used in the methods of the invention are preferably immobilized to a solid support which may be either porous or non-porous. For example, the probes may be polynucleotide sequences which are attached to a nitrocellulose or nylon membrane or filter covalently at either the 3′ or the 5′ end of the polynucleotide. Such hybridization probes are well known in the art (see, e.g., Sambrook, et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual (3rd Edition, 2001). Alternatively, the solid support or surface may be a glass, silicon, or plastic surface. In one embodiment, hybridization levels are measured to microarrays of probes consisting of a solid phase on the surface of which are immobilized a population of polynucleotides, such as a population of DNA or DNA mimics, or, alternatively, a population of RNA or RNA mimics. The solid phase may be a nonporous or, optionally, a porous material such as a gel, or a porous wafer such as a TipChip (Axela, Ontario, Canada).

In one embodiment, the microarray comprises a support or surface with an ordered array of binding (e.g., hybridization) sites or “probes” each representing one of the biomarkers described herein. Preferably the microarrays are addressable arrays, and more preferably positionally addressable arrays. More specifically, each probe of the array is preferably located at a known, predetermined position on the solid support such that the identity (i.e., the sequence) of each probe can be determined from its position in the array (i.e., on the support or surface). Each probe is preferably covalently attached to the solid support at a single site.

Microarrays can be made in a number of ways, of which several are described below. However they are produced, microarrays share certain characteristics. The arrays are reproducible, allowing multiple copies of a given array to be produced and easily compared with each other. Preferably, microarrays are made from materials that are stable under binding (e.g., nucleic acid hybridization) conditions. Microarrays are generally small, e.g., between 0.1 cm² and 25 cm²; however, larger arrays may also be used, e.g., in screening arrays. Preferably, a given binding site or unique set of binding sites in the microarray will specifically bind (e.g., hybridize) to the product of a single gene in a cell (e.g., to a specific mRNA, or to a specific cDNA derived therefrom). However, in general, other related or similar sequences will cross hybridize to a given binding site.

As noted above, the “probe” to which a particular polynucleotide molecule specifically hybridizes contains a complementary polynucleotide sequence. The probes of the microarray typically consist of nucleotide sequences of no more than 1,000 nucleotides. In some embodiments, the probes of the array consist of nucleotide sequences of 10 to 1,000 nucleotides. In one embodiment, the nucleotide sequences of the probes are in the range of 10-200 nucleotides in length and are genomic sequences of one species of organism, such that a plurality of different probes is present, with sequences complementary and thus capable of hybridizing to the genome of such a species of organism, sequentially tiled across all or a portion of the genome. In other embodiments, the probes are in the range of 10-30 nucleotides in length, in the range of 10-40 nucleotides in length, in the range of 20-50 nucleotides in length, in the range of 40-80 nucleotides in length, in the range of 50-150 nucleotides in length, in the range of 80-120 nucleotides in length, or are 60 nucleotides in length.

The probes may comprise DNA or DNA “mimics” (e.g., derivatives and analogues) corresponding to a portion of an organism's genome. In another embodiment, the probes of the microarray are complementary RNA or RNA mimics. DNA mimics are polymers composed of subunits capable of specific, Watson-Crick-like hybridization with DNA, or of specific hybridization with RNA. The nucleic acids can be modified at the base moiety, at the sugar moiety, or at the phosphate backbone (e.g., phosphorothioates).

DNA can be obtained, e.g., by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of genomic DNA or cloned sequences. PCR primers are preferably chosen based on a known sequence of the genome that will result in amplification of specific fragments of genomic DNA. Computer programs that are well known in the art are useful in the design of primers with the required specificity and optimal amplification properties, such as Oligo version 5.0 (National Biosciences). Typically each probe on the microarray will be between 10 bases and 50,000 bases, usually between 20 bases and 200 bases in length. PCR methods are well known in the art, and are described, for example, in Innis et al., eds., PCR Protocols: A Guide To Methods And Applications, Academic Press Inc., San Diego, Calif. (1990); herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. It will be apparent to one skilled in the art that controlled robotic systems are useful for isolating and amplifying nucleic acids.

An alternative, preferred means for generating polynucleotide probes is by synthesis of synthetic polynucleotides or oligonucleotides, e.g., using N-phosphonate or phosphoramidite chemistries (Froehler et al., Nucleic Acid Res. 14:5399-5407 (1986); McBride et al., Tetrahedron Lett. 24:246-248 (1983)). Synthetic sequences are typically between about 10 and about 500 bases in length, more typically between about 20 and about 100 bases, and most preferably between about 40 and about 70 bases in length. In some embodiments, synthetic nucleic acids include non-natural bases, such as, but by no means limited to, inosine. As noted above, nucleic acid analogues may be used as binding sites for hybridization. An example of a suitable nucleic acid analogue is peptide nucleic acid (see, e.g., Egholm et al., Nature 363:566-568 (1993); U.S. Pat. No. 5,539,083).

Probes are preferably selected using an algorithm that takes into account binding energies, base composition, sequence complexity, cross-hybridization binding energies, and secondary structure. See Friend et al., International Patent Publication WO 01/05935, published Jan. 25, 2001; Hughes et al., Nat. Biotech. 19:342-7 (2001).

A skilled artisan will also appreciate that positive control probes, e.g., probes known to be complementary and hybridizable to sequences in the target polynucleotide molecules, and negative control probes, e.g., probes known to not be complementary and hybridizable to sequences in the target polynucleotide molecules, should be included on the array. In one embodiment, positive controls are synthesized along the perimeter of the array. In another embodiment, positive controls are synthesized in diagonal stripes across the array. In still another embodiment, the reverse complement for each probe is synthesized next to the position of the probe to serve as a negative control. In yet another embodiment, sequences from other species of organism are used as negative controls or as “spike-in” controls.

The probes are attached to a solid support or surface, which may be made, e.g., from glass, plastic (e.g., polypropylene, nylon), polyacrylamide, nitrocellulose, gel, silicon, or other porous or nonporous material. One method for attaching nucleic acids to a surface is by printing on glass plates, as is described generally by Schena et al, Science 270:467-470 (1995). This method is especially useful for preparing microarrays of cDNA (See also, DeRisi et al, Nature Genetics 14:457-460 (1996); Shalon et al., Genome Res. 6:639-645 (1996); and Schena et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 93:10539-11286 (1995); herein incorporated by reference in their entireties).

A second method for making microarrays produces high-density oligonucleotide arrays. Techniques are known for producing arrays containing thousands of oligonucleotides complementary to defined sequences, at defined locations on a surface using photolithographic techniques for synthesis in situ (see, Fodor et al., 1991, Science 251:767-773; Pease et al., 1994, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 91:5022-5026; Lockhart et al., 1996, Nature Biotechnology 14:1675; U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,578,832; 5,556,752; and 5,510,270; herein incorporated by reference in their entireties) or other methods for rapid synthesis and deposition of defined oligonucleotides (Blanchard et al., Biosensors & Bioelectronics 11:687-690; herein incorporated by reference in its entirety). When these methods are used, oligonucleotides (e.g., 60-mers) of known sequence are synthesized directly on a surface such as a derivatized glass slide. Usually, the array produced is redundant, with several oligonucleotide molecules per RNA.

Other methods for making microarrays, e.g., by masking (Maskos and Southern, 1992, Nuc. Acids. Res. 20:1679-1684; herein incorporated by reference in its entirety), may also be used. In principle, any type of array, for example, dot blots on a nylon hybridization membrane (see Sambrook, et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 3rd Edition, 2001) could be used. However, as will be recognized by those skilled in the art, very small arrays will frequently be preferred because hybridization volumes will be smaller.

Microarrays can also be manufactured by means of an ink jet printing device for oligonucleotide synthesis, e.g., using the methods and systems described by Blanchard in U.S. Pat. No. 6,028,189; Blanchard et al., 1996, Biosensors and Bioelectronics 11:687-690; Blanchard, 1998, in Synthetic DNA Arrays in Genetic Engineering, Vol. 20, J. K. Setlow, Ed., Plenum Press, New York at pages 111-123; herein incorporated by reference in their entireties. Specifically, the oligonucleotide probes in such microarrays are synthesized in arrays, e.g., on a glass slide, by serially depositing individual nucleotide bases in “microdroplets” of a high surface tension solvent such as propylene carbonate. The microdroplets have small volumes (e.g., 100 pL or less, more preferably 50 pL or less) and are separated from each other on the microarray (e.g., by hydrophobic domains) to form circular surface tension wells which define the locations of the array elements (i.e., the different probes). Microarrays manufactured by this ink-jet method are typically of high density, preferably having a density of at least about 2,500 different probes per 1 cm². The polynucleotide probes are attached to the support covalently at either the 3′ or the 5′ end of the polynucleotide.

Biomarker polynucleotides which may be measured by microarray analysis can be expressed RNA or a nucleic acid derived therefrom (e.g., cDNA or amplified RNA derived from cDNA that incorporates an RNA polymerase promoter), including naturally occurring nucleic acid molecules, as well as synthetic nucleic acid molecules. In one embodiment, the target polynucleotide molecules comprise RNA, including, but by no means limited to, total cellular RNA, poly(A)⁺ messenger RNA (mRNA) or a fraction thereof, cytoplasmic mRNA, or RNA transcribed from cDNA (i.e., cRNA; see, e.g., Linsley & Schelter, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/411,074, filed Oct. 4, 1999, or U.S. Pat. No. 5,545,522, 5,891,636, or 5,716,785). Methods for preparing total and poly(A)⁺ RNA are well known in the art, and are described generally, e.g., in Sambrook, et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual (3rd Edition, 2001). RNA can be extracted from a cell of interest using guanidinium thiocyanate lysis followed by CsCl centrifugation (Chirgwin et al., 1979, Biochemistry 18:5294-5299), a silica gel-based column (e.g., RNeasy (Qiagen, Valencia, Calif.) or StrataPrep (Stratagene, La Jolla, Calif.)), or using phenol and chloroform, as described in Ausubel et al., eds., 1989, Current Protocols In Molecular Biology, Vol. III, Green Publishing Associates, Inc., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, at pp. 13.12.1-13.12.5). Poly(A)⁺ RNA can be selected, e.g., by selection with oligo-dT cellulose or, alternatively, by oligo-dT primed reverse transcription of total cellular RNA. RNA can be fragmented by methods known in the art, e.g., by incubation with ZnCl₂, to generate fragments of RNA.

In one embodiment, total RNA, mRNA, or nucleic acids derived therefrom, are isolated from a sample taken from a patient having an infection or inflammation. Biomarker polynucleotides that are poorly expressed in particular cells may be enriched using normalization techniques (Bonaldo et al., 1996, Genome Res. 6:791-806).

As described above, the biomarker polynucleotides can be detectably labeled at one or more nucleotides. Any method known in the art may be used to label the target polynucleotides. Preferably, this labeling incorporates the label uniformly along the length of the RNA, and more preferably, the labeling is carried out at a high degree of efficiency. For example, polynucleotides can be labeled by oligo-dT primed reverse transcription. Random primers (e.g., 9-mers) can be used in reverse transcription to uniformly incorporate labeled nucleotides over the full length of the polynucleotides. Alternatively, random primers may be used in conjunction with PCR methods or T7 promoter-based in vitro transcription methods in order to amplify polynucleotides.

The detectable label may be a luminescent label. For example, fluorescent labels, bioluminescent labels, chemiluminescent labels, and colorimetric labels may be used in the practice of the invention. Fluorescent labels that can be used include, but are not limited to, fluorescein, a phosphor, a rhodamine, or a polymethine dye derivative. Chemiluminescent labels that can be used include, but are not limited to, luminol. Additionally, commercially available fluorescent labels including, but not limited to, fluorescent phosphoramidites such as FluorePrime (Amersham Pharmacia, Piscataway, N.J.), Fluoredite (Miilipore, Bedford, Mass.), FAM (ABI, Foster City, Calif.), and Cy3 or Cy5 (Amersham Pharmacia, Piscataway, N.J.) can be used. Alternatively, the detectable label can be a radiolabeled nucleotide.

In one embodiment, biomarker polynucleotide molecules from a patient sample are labeled differentially from the corresponding polynucleotide molecules of a reference sample. The reference can comprise polynucleotide molecules from a normal biological sample (i.e., control sample, e.g., blood or PBMCs from a subject not having an infection or inflammation) or from a reference biological sample, (e.g., blood or PBMCs from a subject having a viral infection or bacterial infection).

Nucleic acid hybridization and wash conditions are chosen so that the target polynucleotide molecules specifically bind or specifically hybridize to the complementary polynucleotide sequences of the array, preferably to a specific array site, wherein its complementary DNA is located. Arrays containing double-stranded probe DNA situated thereon are preferably subjected to denaturing conditions to render the DNA single-stranded prior to contacting with the target polynucleotide molecules. Arrays containing single-stranded probe DNA (e.g., synthetic oligodeoxyribonucleic acids) may need to be denatured prior to contacting with the target polynucleotide molecules, e.g., to remove hairpins or dimers which form due to self-complementary sequences.

Optimal hybridization conditions will depend on the length (e.g., oligomer versus polynucleotide greater than 200 bases) and type (e.g., RNA, or DNA) of probe and target nucleic acids. One of skill in the art will appreciate that as the oligonucleotides become shorter, it may become necessary to adjust their length to achieve a relatively uniform melting temperature for satisfactory hybridization results. General parameters for specific (i.e., stringent) hybridization conditions for nucleic acids are described in Sambrook, et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual (3rd Edition, 2001), and in Ausubel et al., Current Protocols In Molecular Biology, vol. 2, Current Protocols Publishing, New York (1994). Typical hybridization conditions for the cDNA microarrays of Schena et al. are hybridization in 5.times.SSC plus 0.2% SDS at 65° C. for four hours, followed by washes at 25° C. in low stringency wash buffer (1×SSC plus 0.2% SDS), followed by 10 minutes at 25° C. in higher stringency wash buffer (0.1×SSC plus 0.2% SDS) (Schena et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 93:10614 (1993)). Useful hybridization conditions are also provided in, e.g., Tijessen, 1993, Hybridization With Nucleic Acid Probes, Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.; and Kricka, 1992, Nonisotopic Dna Probe Techniques, Academic Press, San Diego, Calif. Particularly preferred hybridization conditions include hybridization at a temperature at or near the mean melting temperature of the probes (e.g., within 51° C., more preferably within 21° C.) in 1 M NaCl, 50 mM MES buffer (pH 6.5), 0.5% sodium sarcosine and 30% formamide.

When fluorescently labeled gene products are used, the fluorescence emissions at each site of a microarray may be, preferably, detected by scanning confocal laser microscopy. In one embodiment, a separate scan, using the appropriate excitation line, is carried out for each of the two fluorophores used. Alternatively, a laser may be used that allows simultaneous specimen illumination at wavelengths specific to the two fluorophores and emissions from the two fluorophores can be analyzed simultaneously (see Shalon et al., 1996, “A DNA microarray system for analyzing complex DNA samples using two-color fluorescent probe hybridization,” Genome Research 6:639-645, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes). Arrays can be scanned with a laser fluorescent scanner with a computer controlled X-Y stage and a microscope objective. Sequential excitation of the two fluorophores is achieved with a multi-line, mixed gas laser and the emitted light is split by wavelength and detected with two photomultiplier tubes. Fluorescence laser scanning devices are described in Schena et al., Genome Res. 6:639-645 (1996), and in other references cited herein. Alternatively, the fiber-optic bundle described by Ferguson et al., Nature Biotech. 14:1681-1684 (1996), may be used to monitor mRNA abundance levels at a large number of sites simultaneously. Alternatively, the probes may be labeled with fluorophores and targets measured with quenchers, such that amplification is tracked by measuring decreasing signal intensity.

In certain embodiments, the invention includes a microarray comprising a plurality of probes for detection of gene expression of a set of viral response genes and a set of bacterial response genes and/or a set of sepsis response genes.

In one embodiment, the microarray comprises an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to an IFI27 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a JUP polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a LAX1 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a HK3 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a TNIP1 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a GPAA1 polynucleotide, and an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a CTSB polynucleotide.

In another embodiment, the microarray further comprises an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a CEACAM1 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a ZDHHC19 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a C9orf95 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a GNA15 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a BATF polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a C3AR1 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a KIAA1370 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a TGFBI polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a MTCH1 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a RPGRIP1 polynucleotide, and an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a HLA-DPB1 polynucleotide.

Polynucleotides can also be analyzed by other methods including, but not limited to, northern blotting, nuclease protection assays, RNA fingerprinting, polymerase chain reaction, ligase chain reaction, Qbeta replicase, isothermal amplification method, strand displacement amplification, transcription based amplification systems, nuclease protection (S1 nuclease or RNAse protection assays), SAGE as well as methods disclosed in International Publication Nos. WO 88/10315 and WO 89/06700, and International Applications Nos. PCT/US87/00880 and PCT/US89/01025; herein incorporated by reference in their entireties.

A standard Northern blot assay can be used to ascertain an RNA transcript size, identify alternatively spliced RNA transcripts, and the relative amounts of mRNA in a sample, in accordance with conventional Northern hybridization techniques known to those persons of ordinary skill in the art. In Northern blots, RNA samples are first separated by size by electrophoresis in an agarose gel under denaturing conditions. The RNA is then transferred to a membrane, cross-linked, and hybridized with a labeled probe. Nonisotopic or high specific activity radiolabeled probes can be used, including random-primed, nick-translated, or PCR-generated DNA probes, in vitro transcribed RNA probes, and oligonucleotides. Additionally, sequences with only partial homology (e.g., cDNA from a different species or genomic DNA fragments that might contain an exon) may be used as probes. The labeled probe, e.g., a radiolabelled cDNA, either containing the full-length, single stranded DNA or a fragment of that DNA sequence may be at least 20, at least 30, at least 50, or at least 100 consecutive nucleotides in length. The probe can be labeled by any of the many different methods known to those skilled in this art. The labels most commonly employed for these studies are radioactive elements, enzymes, chemicals that fluoresce when exposed to ultraviolet light, and others. A number of fluorescent materials are known and can be utilized as labels. These include, but are not limited to, fluorescein, rhodamine, auramine, Texas Red, AMCA blue and Lucifer Yellow. A particular detecting material is anti-rabbit antibody prepared in goats and conjugated with fluorescein through an isothiocyanate. Proteins can also be labeled with a radioactive element or with an enzyme. The radioactive label can be detected by any of the currently available counting procedures. Isotopes that can be used include, but are not limited to, ³H, ¹⁴C, ³²P, ³⁵S, ³⁶Cl, ³⁵Cr, ⁵⁷Co, ⁵⁸Co, ⁵⁹Fe, ⁹⁰Y, ¹²⁵I, ¹³¹I, and ¹⁸⁶Re. Enzyme labels are likewise useful, and can be detected by any of the presently utilized colorimetric, spectrophotometric, fluorospectrophotometric, amperometric or gasometric techniques. The enzyme is conjugated to the selected particle by reaction with bridging molecules such as carbodiimides, diisocyanates, glutaraldehyde and the like. Any enzymes known to one of skill in the art can be utilized. Examples of such enzymes include, but are not limited to, peroxidase, beta-D-galactosidase, urease, glucose oxidase plus peroxidase and alkaline phosphatase. U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,654,090, 3,850,752, and 4,016,043 are referred to by way of example for their disclosure of alternate labeling material and methods.

Nuclease protection assays (including both ribonuclease protection assays and S1 nuclease assays) can be used to detect and quantitate specific mRNAs. In nuclease protection assays, an antisense probe (labeled with, e.g., radiolabeled or nonisotopic) hybridizes in solution to an RNA sample. Following hybridization, single-stranded, unhybridized probe and RNA are degraded by nucleases. An acrylamide gel is used to separate the remaining protected fragments. Typically, solution hybridization is more efficient than membrane-based hybridization, and it can accommodate up to 100 μg of sample RNA, compared with the 20-30 μg maximum of blot hybridizations.

The ribonuclease protection assay, which is the most common type of nuclease protection assay, requires the use of RNA probes. Oligonucleotides and other single-stranded DNA probes can only be used in assays containing Si nuclease. The single-stranded, antisense probe must typically be completely homologous to target RNA to prevent cleavage of the probe:target hybrid by nuclease.

Serial Analysis Gene Expression (SAGE) can also be used to determine RNA abundances in a cell sample. See, e.g., Velculescu et al., 1995, Science 270:484-7; Carulli, et al., 1998, Journal of Cellular Biochemistry Supplements 30/31:286-96; herein incorporated by reference in their entireties. SAGE analysis does not require a special device for detection, and is one of the preferable analytical methods for simultaneously detecting the expression of a large number of transcription products. First, poly A⁺ RNA is extracted from cells. Next, the RNA is converted into cDNA using a biotinylated oligo (dT) primer, and treated with a four-base recognizing restriction enzyme (Anchoring Enzyme: AE) resulting in AE-treated fragments containing a biotin group at their 3′ terminus. Next, the AE-treated fragments are incubated with streptavidin for binding. The bound cDNA is divided into two fractions, and each fraction is then linked to a different double-stranded oligonucleotide adapter (linker) A or B. These linkers are composed of: (1) a protruding single strand portion having a sequence complementary to the sequence of the protruding portion formed by the action of the anchoring enzyme, (2) a 5′ nucleotide recognizing sequence of the IIS-type restriction enzyme (cleaves at a predetermined location no more than 20 bp away from the recognition site) serving as a tagging enzyme (TE), and (3) an additional sequence of sufficient length for constructing a PCR-specific primer. The linker-linked cDNA is cleaved using the tagging enzyme, and only the linker-linked cDNA sequence portion remains, which is present in the form of a short-strand sequence tag. Next, pools of short-strand sequence tags from the two different types of linkers are linked to each other, followed by PCR amplification using primers specific to linkers A and B. As a result, the amplification product is obtained as a mixture comprising myriad sequences of two adjacent sequence tags (ditags) bound to linkers A and B. The amplification product is treated with the anchoring enzyme, and the free ditag portions are linked into strands in a standard linkage reaction. The amplification product is then cloned. Determination of the clone's nucleotide sequence can be used to obtain a read-out of consecutive ditags of constant length. The presence of mRNA corresponding to each tag can then be identified from the nucleotide sequence of the clone and information on the sequence tags.

Quantitative reverse transcriptase PCR (qRT-PCR) can also be used to determine the expression profiles of biomarkers (see, e.g., U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2005/0048542A1; herein incorporated by reference in its entirety). The first step in gene expression profiling by RT-PCR is the reverse transcription of the RNA template into cDNA, followed by its exponential amplification in a PCR reaction. The two most commonly used reverse transcriptases are avilo myeloblastosis virus reverse transcriptase (AMV-RT) and Moloney murine leukemia virus reverse transcriptase (MLV-RT). The reverse transcription step is typically primed using specific primers, random hexamers, or oligo-dT primers, depending on the circumstances and the goal of expression profiling. For example, extracted RNA can be reverse-transcribed using a GeneAmp RNA PCR kit (Perkin Elmer, Calif., USA), following the manufacturer's instructions. The derived cDNA can then be used as a template in the subsequent PCR reaction.

Although the PCR step can use a variety of thermostable DNA-dependent DNA polymerases, it typically employs the Taq DNA polymerase, which has a 5′-3′ nuclease activity but lacks a 3′-5′ proofreading endonuclease activity. Thus, TAQMAN PCR typically utilizes the 5′-nuclease activity of Taq or Tth polymerase to hydrolyze a hybridization probe bound to its target amplicon, but any enzyme with equivalent 5′ nuclease activity can be used. Two oligonucleotide primers are used to generate an amplicon typical of a PCR reaction. A third oligonucleotide, or probe, is designed to detect nucleotide sequence located between the two PCR primers. The probe is non-extendible by Taq DNA polymerase enzyme, and is labeled with a reporter fluorescent dye and a quencher fluorescent dye. Any laser-induced emission from the reporter dye is quenched by the quenching dye when the two dyes are located close together as they are on the probe. During the amplification reaction, the Taq DNA polymerase enzyme cleaves the probe in a template-dependent manner. The resultant probe fragments disassociate in solution, and signal from the released reporter dye is free from the quenching effect of the second fluorophore. One molecule of reporter dye is liberated for each new molecule synthesized, and detection of the unquenched reporter dye provides the basis for quantitative interpretation of the data.

TAQMAN RT-PCR can be performed using commercially available equipment, such as, for example, ABI PRISM 7700 sequence detection system (Perkin-Elmer-Applied Biosystems, Foster City, Calif., USA), or Lightcycler (Roche Molecular Biochemicals, Mannheim, Germany). Alternatives include, but are not limited to, sample-to-answer point-of-need devices such as cobas Liat (Roche Molecular Diagnostics, Pleasanton, Calif., USA) or GeneXpert systems (Cepheid, Sunnyvale, Calif., USA). One of ordinary skill will appreciate that the invention is not limited to the listed devices, and that other devices can be used for TAQMAN-PCR. In a preferred embodiment, the 5′ nuclease procedure is run on a real-time quantitative PCR device such as the ABI PRISM 7700 sequence detection system. The system consists of a thermocycler, laser, charge-coupled device (CCD), camera and computer. The system includes software for running the instrument and for analyzing the data. 5′-Nuclease assay data are initially expressed as Ct, or the threshold cycle. Fluorescence values are recorded during every cycle and represent the amount of product amplified to that point in the amplification reaction. The point when the fluorescent signal is first recorded as statistically significant is the threshold cycle (Ct). Alternatives to standard thermal cycling include, but are not limited to, amplification by continuous thermal gradient, or isothermal amplification with endpoint detection and other known devices to those of ordinary skill. To minimize errors and the effect of sample-to-sample variation, RT-PCR is usually performed using an internal standard. The ideal internal standard is expressed at a constant level among different tissues, and is unaffected by the experimental treatment. RNAs most frequently used to normalize patterns of gene expression are mRNAs for the housekeeping genes glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate-dehydrogenase (GAPDH) and beta-actin.

A more recent variation of the RT-PCR technique is the real time quantitative PCR, which measures PCR product accumulation through a dual-labeled fluorigenic probe (i.e., TAQMAN probe). Real time PCR is compatible both with quantitative competitive PCR, where internal competitor for each target sequence is used for normalization, and with quantitative comparative PCR using a normalization gene contained within the sample, or a housekeeping gene for RT-PCR. For further details see, e.g. Held et al., Genome Research 6:986-994 (1996).

An alternative is the detection of PCR products using digital counting methods. These include, but are not limited to, digital droplet PCR and solid-state nanopore detection of PCR products. In these methods the counts of the products of interests may be normalized to the counts of housekeeping genes. Other methods of PCR detection known to those of ordinary skill can be used, and the invention is not limited to the listed methods.

Analysis of Biomarker Data

Biomarker data may be analyzed by a variety of methods to identify biomarkers and determine the statistical significance of differences in observed levels of biomarkers between test and reference expression profiles in order to evaluate whether a patient has inflammation arising from a noninfectious source, such as traumatic injury, surgery, autoimmune disease, thrombosis, or systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) or an infection, and if the patient is diagnosed with an infection, to diagnose the type of infection, including determining whether a patient has a viral infection or a bacterial infection. In certain embodiments, patient data is analyzed by one or more methods including, but not limited to, multivariate linear discriminant analysis (LDA), receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis, principal component analysis (PCA), ensemble data mining methods, significance analysis of microarrays (SAM), cell specific significance analysis of microarrays (csSAM), spanning-tree progression analysis of density-normalized events (SPADE), and multi-dimensional protein identification technology (MUDPIT) analysis. (See, e.g., Hilbe (2009) Logistic Regression Models, Chapman & Hall/CRC Press; McLachlan (2004) Discriminant Analysis and Statistical Pattern Recognition. Wiley Interscience; Zweig et al. (1993) Clin. Chem. 39:561-577; Pepe (2003) The statistical evaluation of medical tests for classification and prediction, New York, N.Y.: Oxford; Sing et al. (2005) Bioinformatics 21:3940-3941; Tusher et al. (2001) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 98:5116-5121; Oza (2006) Ensemble data mining, NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, Calif., USA; English et al. (2009) J. Biomed. Inform. 42(2):287-295; Zhang (2007) Bioinformatics 8: 230; Shen-Orr et al. (2010) Journal of Immunology 184:144-130; Qiu et al. (2011) Nat. Biotechnol. 29(10):886-891; Ru et al. (2006) J. Chromatogr. A. 1111(2):166-174, Jolliffe Principal Component Analysis (Springer Series in Statistics, 2^(nd) edition, Springer, N.Y., 2002), Koren et al. (2004) IEEE Trans Vis Comput Graph 10:459-470; herein incorporated by reference in their entireties.)

C. Kits

In yet another aspect, the invention provides kits for diagnosing an infection in a subject, wherein the kits can be used to detect the biomarkers of the present invention. For example, the kits can be used to detect any one or more of the biomarkers described herein, which are differentially expressed in samples of a patient having a viral or bacterial infection and healthy or non-infected subjects. The kit may include one or more agents for measuring the levels of expression of a set of viral response genes and a set of bacterial response genes, a container for holding a biological sample isolated from a human subject suspected of having an infection; and printed instructions for reacting agents with the biological sample or a portion of the biological sample for measuring the levels of expression of a set of viral response genes and a set of bacterial response genes in the biological sample. The agents may be packaged in separate containers. The kit may further comprise one or more control reference samples and reagents for performing an immunoassay, PCR, or microarray analysis.

In one embodiment, the kit comprises agents for measuring the levels of IFI27, JUP, LAX1, HK3, TNIP1, GPAA1, and CTSB biomarkers for distinguishing viral infections from bacterial infections.

In another embodiment, the kit further comprises agents for measuring the levels of CEACAM1, ZDHHC19, C9orf95, GNA15, BATF, C3AR1, KIAA1370, TGFBI, MTCH1, RPGRIP1, and HLA-DPB1 biomarkers for distinguishing whether inflammation is caused by an infectious or non-infectious source.

In certain embodiments, the kit further comprises a microarray for analysis of a plurality of biomarker polynucleotides. In one embodiment, the microarray comprises an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to an IFI27 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a JUP polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a LAX1 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a HK3 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a TNIP1 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a GPAA1 polynucleotide, and an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a CTSB polynucleotide

In another embodiment, the kit further comprises a microarray comprising an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a CEACAM1 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a ZDHHC19 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a C9orf95 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a GNA15 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a BATF polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a C3AR1 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a KIAA1370 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a TGFBI polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a MTCH1 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a RPGRIP1 polynucleotide, and an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a HLA-DPB1 polynucleotide.

The kit can comprise one or more containers for compositions contained in the kit. Compositions can be in liquid form or can be lyophilized. Suitable containers for the compositions include, for example, bottles, vials, syringes, and test tubes. Containers can be formed from a variety of materials, including glass or plastic. The kit can also comprise a package insert containing written instructions for methods of diagnosing infections.

The kits of the invention have a number of applications. For example, the kits can be used to determine if a subject has an infection or some other inflammatory condition arising from a noninfectious source, such as traumatic injury, surgery, autoimmune disease, thrombosis, or systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS). If a patient is diagnosed with an infection, the kits can be used to further determine the type of infection (i.e., viral or bacterial infection). In another example, the kits can be used to determine if a patient having acute inflammation should be treated, for example, with broad spectrum antibiotics or antiviral agents. In another example, kits can be used to monitor the effectiveness of treatment of a patient having an infection. In a further example, the kits can be used to identify compounds that modulate expression of one or more of the biomarkers in in vitro or in vivo animal models to determine the effects of treatment.

D. Diagnostic System and Computerized Methods for Diagnosis of an Infection

In a further aspect, the invention includes a computer implemented method for diagnosing a patient suspected of having an infection. The computer performs steps comprising: receiving inputted patient data comprising values for the levels of expression of either or both of a set of viral response genes and a set of bacterial response genes in a biological sample from the patient; analyzing the levels of expression of the set of genes; calculating a bacterial/viral metascore for the patient based on the levels of expression of the set of genes, wherein the value of the bacterial/viral metascore indicates whether the patient has a viral infection or a bacterial infection; and displaying information regarding the diagnosis of the patient.

In certain embodiments, the inputted patient data comprises values for the levels of expression of a set of viral response genes and a set of bacterial response genes selected from the group consisting of: a) a set of viral response genes comprising IFI27, JUP, and LAX1 and a set of bacterial response genes comprising HK3, TNIP1, GPAA1, and CTSB; b) a set of viral response genes comprising OAS2 and CUL1 and a set of bacterial response genes comprising SLC12A9, ACPP, STAT5B; c) a set of viral response genes comprising ISG15 and CHST12 and a set of bacterial response genes comprising EMR1 and FLII; d) a set of viral response genes comprising IFIT1, SIGLEC1, and ADA and a set of bacterial response genes comprising PTAFR, NRD1, PLP2; e) a set of viral response genes comprising MX1 and a set of bacterial response genes comprising DYSF, TWF2; f) a set of viral response genes comprising RSAD2 and a set of bacterial response genes comprising SORT1 and TSPO; g) a set of viral response genes comprising IFI44L, GZMB, and KCTD14 and a set of bacterial response genes comprising TBXAS1, ACAA1, and S100A12; h) a set of viral response genes comprising LY6E and a set of bacterial response genes comprising PGD and LAPTM5; i) a set of viral response genes comprising IFI44, HESX1, and OASL and a set of bacterial response genes comprising NINJ2, DOK3, SORL1, and RAB31; j) a set of viral response genes comprising OAS1 and a set of bacterial response genes comprising IMPA2 and LTA4H.

In another embodiment, the invention includes a computer implemented method for diagnosing a patient suspected of having an infection, the computer performing steps comprising: a) receiving inputted patient data comprising values for the levels in a biological sample from the patient of IFI27, JUP, LAX1, HK3, TNIP1, GPAA1, and CTSB biomarkers; b) analyzing the level of each of the biomarkers and comparing with respective reference value ranges for the biomarkers; c) calculating a bacterial/viral metascore for the patient based on the levels of expression of the biomarkers, wherein a positive bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a viral infection and a negative bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a bacterial infection; and d) displaying information regarding the diagnosis of the patient.

In certain embodiments, the inputted patient data further comprises values for the levels of expression of a set of sepsis response genes comprising CEACAM1, ZDHHC19, C9orf95, GNA15, BATF, C3AR1, KIAA1370, TGFBI, MTCH1, RPGRIP1, and HLA-DPB1, wherein the computer implemented method further comprises calculating a sepsis metascore for the patient, wherein a sepsis metascore that is higher than the reference value ranges for a non-infected control subject indicates that the patient has an infection, and a sepsis metascore that is within the reference value ranges for a non-infected control subject indicates that the patient has a non-infectious inflammatory condition.

In another embodiment, the invention includes a computer implemented method for diagnosing a patient having inflammation, the computer performing steps comprising: a) receiving inputted patient data comprising values for the levels of IFI27, JUP, LAX1, HK3, TNIP1, GPAA1, CTSB, CEACAM1, ZDHHC19, C9orf95, GNA15, BATF, C3AR1, KIAA1370, TGFBI, MTCH1, RPGRIP1, and HLA-DPB1 biomarkers in a biological sample from the patient; b) analyzing the levels of each of the biomarkers and comparing with respective reference value ranges for the biomarkers; c) calculating a sepsis metascore for the patient, wherein a sepsis metascore that is higher than the reference value ranges for a non-infected control subject indicates that the patient has an infection, and a sepsis metascore that is within the reference value ranges for a non-infected control subject indicates that the patient has a non-infectious inflammatory condition; d) calculating a bacterial/viral metascore for the patient if the sepsis score indicates that the patient has an infection, wherein a positive bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a viral infection and a negative bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a bacterial infection; and displaying information regarding the diagnosis of the patient.

In a further aspect, the invention includes a diagnostic system for performing the computer implemented method, as described. A diagnostic system includes a computer containing a processor, a storage component (i.e., memory), a display component, and other components typically present in general purpose computers. The storage component stores information accessible by the processor, including instructions that may be executed by the processor and data that may be retrieved, manipulated or stored by the processor.

The storage component includes instructions for determining the diagnosis of the patient. For example, the storage component includes instructions for calculating a bacterial/viral metascore and/or sepsis metascore, as described herein (see Example 1). In addition, the storage component may further comprise instructions for performing multivariate linear discriminant analysis (LDA), receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis, principal component analysis (PCA), ensemble data mining methods, cell specific significance analysis of microarrays (csSAM), or multi-dimensional protein identification technology (MUDPIT) analysis. The computer processor is coupled to the storage component and configured to execute the instructions stored in the storage component in order to receive patient data and analyze patient data according to one or more algorithms. The display component displays information regarding the diagnosis of the patient.

The storage component may be of any type capable of storing information accessible by the processor, such as a hard-drive, memory card, ROM, RAM, DVD, CD-ROM, USB Flash drive, write-capable, and read-only memories. The processor may be any well-known processor, such as processors from Intel Corporation. Alternatively, the processor may be a dedicated controller such as an ASIC.

The instructions may be any set of instructions to be executed directly (such as machine code) or indirectly (such as scripts) by the processor. In that regard, the terms “instructions,” “steps” and “programs” may be used interchangeably herein. The instructions may be stored in object code form for direct processing by the processor, or in any other computer language including scripts or collections of independent source code modules that are interpreted on demand or compiled in advance.

Data may be retrieved, stored or modified by the processor in accordance with the instructions. For instance, although the diagnostic system is not limited by any particular data structure, the data may be stored in computer registers, in a relational database as a table having a plurality of different fields and records, XML documents, or flat files. The data may also be formatted in any computer-readable format such as, but not limited to, binary values, ASCII or Unicode. Moreover, the data may comprise any information sufficient to identify the relevant information, such as numbers, descriptive text, proprietary codes, pointers, references to data stored in other memories (including other network locations) or information which is used by a function to calculate the relevant data.

In certain embodiments, the processor and storage component may comprise multiple processors and storage components that may or may not be stored within the same physical housing. For example, some of the instructions and data may be stored on removable CD-ROM and others within a read-only computer chip. Some or all of the instructions and data may be stored in a location physically remote from, yet still accessible by, the processor. Similarly, the processor may actually comprise a collection of processors which may or may not operate in parallel.

In one aspect, computer is a server communicating with one or more client computers. Each client computer may be configured similarly to the server, with a processor, storage component and instructions. Each client computer may be a personal computer, intended for use by a person, having all the internal components normally found in a personal computer such as a central processing unit (CPU), display (for example, a monitor displaying information processed by the processor), CD-ROM, hard-drive, user input device (for example, a mouse, keyboard, touch-screen or microphone), speakers, modem and/or network interface device (telephone, cable or otherwise) and all of the components used for connecting these elements to one another and permitting them to communicate (directly or indirectly) with one another. Moreover, computers in accordance with the systems and methods described herein may comprise any device capable of processing instructions and transmitting data to and from humans and other computers including network computers lacking local storage capability.

Although the client computers and may comprise a full-sized personal computer, many aspects of the system and method are particularly advantageous when used in connection with mobile devices capable of wireles sly exchanging data with a server over a network such as the Internet. For example, client computer may be a wireless-enabled PDA such as a Blackberry phone, Apple iPhone, Android, or other Internet-capable cellular phone. In such regard, the user may input information using a small keyboard, a keypad, a touch screen, or any other means of user input. The computer may have an antenna for receiving a wireless signal.

The server and client computers are capable of direct and indirect communication, such as over a network. Although only a few computers can be used, it should be appreciated that a typical system can include a large number of connected computers, with each different computer being at a different node of the network. The network, and intervening nodes, may comprise various combinations of devices and communication protocols including the Internet, World Wide Web, intranets, virtual private networks, wide area networks, local networks, cell phone networks, private networks using communication protocols proprietary to one or more companies, Ethernet, WiFi and HTTP. Such communication may be facilitated by any device capable of transmitting data to and from other computers, such as modems (e.g., dial-up or cable), networks and wireless interfaces. The server may be a web server.

Although certain advantages are obtained when information is transmitted or received as noted above, other aspects of the system and method are not limited to any particular manner of transmission of information. For example, in some aspects, information may be sent via a medium such as a disk, tape, flash drive, DVD, or CD-ROM. In other aspects, the information may be transmitted in a non-electronic format and manually entered into the system. Yet further, although some functions are indicated as taking place on a server and others on a client, various aspects of the system and method may be implemented by a single computer having a single processor.

III. EXPERIMENTAL

Below are examples of specific embodiments for carrying out the present invention. The examples are offered for illustrative purposes only, and are not intended to limit the scope of the present invention in any way.

Efforts have been made to ensure accuracy with respect to numbers used (e.g., amounts, temperatures, etc.), but some experimental error and deviation should, of course, be allowed for.

Example 1 Robust Classification of Bacterial and Viral Infections Via Integrated Host Gene Expression Diagnostics

Introduction

Here, we sought to improve the diagnostic power of the Sepsis MetaScore (SMS) by adding the ability to discriminate bacterial from viral infections. Thus, in order to derive a new biomarker for discriminating infection types, we applied our multi-cohort analysis framework to clinical microarray cohorts that compared the host response to bacterial and viral infections. We further developed a new method to co-normalize gene expression data among multiple cohorts, allowing direct comparison of a diagnostic score among multiple cohorts. Finally, we combined the Sepsis MetaScore and the new bacterial/viral diagnostic into an integrated antibiotic decision model (IADM) that can determine whether a patient with acute inflammation from any source has an underlying bacterial infection.

Results

Derivation of the 7-Gene Bacterial/Viral Metascore

Our previously published 11-gene SMS cannot reliably distinguish between bacterial and viral infections, showing mostly non-significant differences in score distribution between patients with bacterial and viral infections (FIGS. 5A and 5B). Having previously shown that there is a conserved host gene response to viral infections¹⁵, we hypothesized that a classifier for bacterial vs. viral infections would allow for an improved diagnostic model. We thus performed a systematic search for gene expression microarray cohorts that studied patients with viral and/or bacterial infections. We identified 8 cohorts^(11,18-26) (both whole blood and PBMCs) that included N>5 patients with both viral and bacterial infections (Table 1A). The 8 cohorts are composed of 426 patient samples (142 viral and 284 bacterial infections), including children and adults, medical and surgical patients, and with multiple sites of infection. We performed multi-cohort analysis on the 8 cohorts as previously described (FIG. 6)^(7,15,16,27). We set significance thresholds of an effect size >2-fold and an FDR <1% in leave-one-dataset-out round-robin analysis. However, in order to make sure that neither tissue type was biasing results, we further selected only those genes that also had an effect size >1.5 fold in separate analyses of both PBMCs and whole blood cohorts. This process resulted in 72 significantly differentially expressed genes (Supplemental Table 1). A greedy forward search⁷ was then used to find a gene set optimized for diagnosis, resulting in 7 genes (higher in viral infections: IFI27, JUP, LAX1, higher in bacterial infections: HK3, TNIP1, GPAA1, CTSB; FIG. 7). As expected, a ‘bacterial/viral metascore’ based on these 7 genes robustly distinguished viral from bacterial infections in all 8 of the discovery cohorts (summary ROC AUC=0.97, 95% CI=0.89-0.99, FIG. 1A, FIG. 8).

We next tested the 7-gene set in the 6 remaining independent clinical cohorts^(13,14,28-30) that directly compared bacterial and viral infections (total 341 samples, 138 bacterial and 203 viral), and found a summary ROC AUC of 0.91 (95% C0.82-0.96) (Table 1B, FIG. 1B, FIG. 9). As a test of signature generalizability, we also tested whether cells stimulated in vitro with LPS or influenza virus could be separated with the bacterial/viral metascore (GSE53166³¹, N=75, AUC=0.99) FIG. 10).

Global Validation via COCONUT Co-Normalization

There are dozens of microarray cohorts in the public domain that studied either bacterial or viral infections, but not both, thus precluding a direct (within dataset) estimate of diagnostic power for separating bacterial and viral illness. In order to apply and compare a gene score across these cohorts, a new method was needed that could remove inter-dataset batch effects while remaining unbiased to the diagnosis of the diseased patients. Here we designed and implemented a new type of array normalization that uses the ComBat³² empiric Bayes normalization methods on healthy controls to obtain bias-free corrections of disease samples (a method we call COmbat CO-Normalization Using conTrols, or ‘COCONUT’, Methods section below, and FIG. 11). Importantly, housekeeping genes are invariant across both diseases and cohorts after COCONUT co-normalization, while each gene still retains the same distribution between diseases and controls within each dataset (FIGS. 12A and 12B). Since the method assumes that all healthy samples are derived from the same distribution, we split the whole blood and PBMC samples, since different immune cell types have significantly different baseline gene expression distributions. Using COCONUT co-normalization, we were able to show that the bacterial/viral metascore has a global AUC of 0.92 (95% CI 0.89-0.96) in the discovery cohorts (FIG. 2, pre-normalized data in FIG. 14). We then applied this method to test the bacterial/viral metascore in all public-domain microarray cohorts that matched inclusion criteria and used whole blood (including the 4 direct validation cohorts that included control patients plus 20 cohorts that measured either bacterial or viral infections but not both³³⁻⁴⁹, N=143+897=1,040), and showed an overall ROC AUC=0.93 (95% CI 0.91-0.94) across these data (Table 2, FIG. 13, pre-normalized data in FIG. 15). Particularly remarkable is the wide clinical variety of the data, which include a wide range of types of infections (Gram positive, Gram negative, atypical bacterial, common respiratory viruses, and dengue) and severities (mild infections to septic shock). We were thus able to establish a single cutoff across all cohorts (shown as horizontal dotted line). Finally, we separately performed the same procedure on the available PBMC validation cohorts (6 cohorts⁵⁰⁻⁵⁴, N=259, global AUC=0.92 (95% CI 0.87-0.97, FIG. 16, pre-normalized data in FIG. 17). Remarkably, all three global ROC AUCs using COCONUT co-normalization (discovery whole blood=0.92, validation whole blood=0.93, validation PBMCs=0.92) roughly matched the summary AUC of the direct validation cohorts (0.91), giving high confidence in this level of diagnostic power.

Supplemental Table 4 shows bacterial/viral metascores for all combinations of two (2) genes selected from the 71 gene set obtained by iterating the greedy forward algorithm in discovery datasets. All the 2-gene combinations from the 71 gene set show an obtained mean AUC greater than or equal to 0.80 (≥0.80). In comparison, FIG. 18 shows the distribution of mean AUCs in discovery datasets for ten thousand (10,000) randomly chosen 2-gene pairs, showing that an AUC of greater than or equal to 0.80 is not attainable by chance alone. As illustrated in FIG. 18, the randomly chosen 2-gene pairs result in a normal distribution of mean AUCs bounded by greater than 0.2 (>0.20) and less than 0.80 (<0.80). The 2-gene combinations provided in Supplemental Table 4 with an AUC of equal or greater than 0.80 (≥0.80) have a clinically useful determination of whether an infection is viral or bacterial.

Integrated Antibiotic Decision Model

A key clinical need is diagnosing whether a patient with signs and symptoms of inflammation has an underlying bacterial infection, as rapid and judicial administration of antibiotics is key to improving patient outcomes. Neither the SMS nor the bacterial/viral metascore alone can robustly distinguish between all three classes of (1) non-infected inflammation, (2) bacterial illness and (3) viral illness. Thus, to increase clinical relevance, we tested an “integrated antibiotics decision model” (IADM), whereby we first apply our previously-described SMS' to test for the presence of an infection, and then the samples that test positive for infection are tested with the bacterial/viral metascore (FIG. 3A). As above, the only way to establish test characteristics for the IADM simultaneously across cohorts is to use COCONUT co-normalization. However, we found that the SMS in COCONUT co-normalized data is strongly influenced by age, which could be due either to differences between healthy patients or infected patients, or both (FIGS. 19A and 19B). We thus excluded cohorts focused on infants (children<1 year old) from the IADM, resulting in a total of 20 cohorts (N=1,057). The resulting global AUC for the SMS across the available data was 0.86 (95% CI 0.84-0.89) (Supplemental Table 2, FIGS. 20A and 20B). We set global thresholds for a SMS sensitivity for infection of 95% and a bacterial/viral metascore sensitivity for bacterial infection of 95%. This yielded an overall sensitivity and specificity for bacterial infections of 94.0% and 59.8%, respectively, and for viral infections 53.0% and 90.6%, respectively (FIGS. 3A-3C). These were largely unchanged if healthy patients were included in the non-infected class (FIGS. 21A and 21B). The overall positive and negative likelihood ratios for bacterial infection in the IADM are thus 2.34 (LR+) and 0.10 (LR−); a recent meta-analysis of procalcitonin showed a negative LR of 0.29 (95% CI 0.22-0.38)⁵⁵. We plotted NPV and PPV vs. prevalence for these test characteristics; the NPV and PPV for bacterial infection at a prevalence of 15% are 98.3% and 29.2% (FIG. 22).

There was only one dataset (GSE63990¹⁴) which included non-infected SIRS patients and patients with both bacterial and viral illness but did not include healthy controls, precluding its addition to the global calculations. We thus tested the IADM with locally derived test thresholds. We found an overall bacterial infection sensitivity and specificity of 94.3% and 52.2%, respectively (FIGS. 21A and 21B).

NanoString Validation

Finally, we used targeted NanoString nCounter⁵⁶ gene expression assays to validate these results in independent whole blood samples from children with sepsis from the Genomics of Pediatric SIRS and Septic Shock Investigators (GPSSSI) cohort (total N=96, with 36 SIRS, 49 bacterial sepsis, and 11 viral sepsis patients, FIGS. 4A-4E). The GPSSSI cohort was also utilized by dataset GSE66099, but the children profiled here were never profiled via microarray and so are not part of the discovery datasets. In the NanoString validation cohort, the SMS AUC was 0.81 (AUC 0.80 in GSE66099). Similarly, the bacterial/viral metascore AUC was 0.84 (AUC 0.83 in GSE66099). The microarray AUCs are thus preserved when tested with a targeted gene expression assay in new patients. Applying the same IADM, the sensitivity and specificity for bacterial infections were 89.7% and 70.0%, and for viral infections were 54.5% and 96.5%, respectively.

Discussion

Better diagnostics for acute infections are needed in both the inpatient and outpatient setting. In low-acuity outpatient settings, a simple diagnostic that can discriminate bacterial from viral infections may be enough to assist in appropriate antibiotic usage. In higher-acuity settings, causes of non-infectious inflammation become more important to rule out, and so a decision model for antibiotic prescriptions must include a non-infected (non-healthy) case. Thus, a reliable diagnostic needs to distinguish all three cases (non-infected inflammation, bacterial infection, and viral infection). Here, using 426 samples from 8 cohorts, we derived a set of just 7 genes that can accurately discriminate bacterial from viral infections across a very broad range of clinical conditions in independent cohorts (total 30 cohorts composed of 1,299 patients). We further demonstrate that by coupling our prior Sepsis MetaScore (to distinguish presence or absence of infection) with this new bacterial/viral metascore (to determine infection type) into a single integrated antibiotics decision model, we can determine with high accuracy which patients would benefit from antibiotics. Finally, we confirmed the diagnostic power of both the 7-gene set and the IADM in independent samples using a targeted NanoString assay, showing that the signatures retain diagnostic power when not relying on microarrays.

The IADM has a low negative likelihood ratio (0.10) and high estimated NPV, meaning it would be potentially effective as a rule-out test. Notably, a meta-analysis of procalcitonin that included 3,244 patients from 30 studies resulted in an overall estimated negative likelihood ratio of 0.29 (95% CI 0.22-0.38)⁵⁵. Thus, the IADM negative likelihood ratio is significantly lower than the estimate for procalcitonin. Moreover, these test characteristics assume no knowledge of the patient and so are only estimates of the real-world clinical utility of such a test. History and physical, vital signs, and laboratory values would all assist in a diagnosis as well. Even given these caveats, a recent economic decision model of screening ICU patients for hospital-acquired infections suggested that a test such as the IADM that can accurately diagnose bacterial and viral infections could be cost-effective⁵⁷. Ultimately, only interventional trials will be able to establish cost-effectiveness and clinical utility of a new diagnostic.

We validated our diagnostic in pediatric sepsis patients from the GPSSSI cohort using a NanoString assay. NanoString is highly accurate and is a useful tool for measuring the expression levels of multiple genes at once; however, it is also likely too slow for clinical application (4-6 hours per assay). Thus, although the assay confirms that our gene set is robust in targeted measurements, further work will be needed to improve the turnaround time. There are multiple possibilities for an eventual commercial product based on rapid multiplexed qPCR. However, this technical hurdle is something that all gene expression infection diagnostics must overcome in order to gain clinical relevance.

Several groups have published models for diagnosing infections based on host gene expression; none have yet made it into clinical practice. Most prior classifiers were either not tested in multiple independent cohorts, had too many genes to allow rapid profiling necessary for useful diagnosis, or both. For instance, Suarez et al. created a 10-gene K-nearest-neighbor classifier, but did not test it outside their published dataset (GSE60244)¹³. Tsalik et al. created a 122-probe (120 gene) classifier based on multiple regression models, but in testing it in external GEO cohorts, they retrained their regression coefficients in each new dataset¹⁴. Such model re-training leads to a strong upward bias to these validation numbers (assuming that a final model would not be locally re-trained), or suggests that each new clinical site would have to gather a large prospective cohort to train the model prior to implementation. Other groups have made gene expression classifiers for sepsis, but did not include models for discriminating viral infections^(7,9,10). Our new IADM is robust across a wide range of disease types and severities, but has a relatively lower sensitivity for viral infections. Non-gene expression biomarkers have also been used for infection diagnosis. Procalcitonin has been studied extensively in the setting of sepsis diagnosis, but cannot distinguish between non-infected individuals and those with viral infections⁵⁸. Protein-panel assays have been shown to discriminate bacterial from viral infections, but cannot discriminate patients with non-infectious inflammation^(59,60). Thus all of these classifiers have certain strengths and weaknesses that will become more apparent with further prospective testing and direct comparison.

Although our goal in this study was to identify new biomarkers and not necessarily new biology, it is still important for a biomarker set to have biologic plausibility. Of the seven genes in the bacterial/viral metascore, six have previously been linked to infections or leukocyte activation. Both IFI2 7 and JUP were shown in single-cohort genome-wide expression studies to be induced in response to viral infection^(52,61), while TNIP1 and CTSB have been shown to be important in modulating the NF-kB and necrotic responses to bacterial infection^(62,63). Finally, LAX1 (upregulated in viral infections) is involved in activation of T-cells and B-cells⁶⁴, while HK3 is instrumental in the neutrophil differentiation pathway⁶⁵. Thus the role of these transcripts as biomarkers for infection type is novel but not unprecedented.

Here we relied on a new method, COCONUT, to directly compare our model across an enormous pool of one-class cohorts that would otherwise be unusable for benchmarking a new diagnostic. COCONUT assumes that all controls come from the same distribution; that is, the genes in each group of controls are reset to have the same mean and variance, with batch parameters learned empirically from gene groups. This method corrects for microarray and batch processing differences between cohorts, and so allows for the creation of a global ROC curve with a single threshold. This is a more ‘real-world’ measure of diagnostic power than simply reporting multiple validation ROC curves, as no single cutoff could attain the same test characteristics in the different cohorts¹⁶. The most important takeaways from the COCONUT-co-normalized data are that both the bacterial/viral metascore and the IADM retain diagnostic power across a very broad range of infection types and severities, with overall AUCs that are similar to the summary AUCs from head-to-head comparisons within cohorts.

Overall, we have leveraged our proven multi-cohort analysis pipeline to derive a highly robust model for improving infection diagnosis. Using a new method, we were able to validate this in dozens of independent microarray cohorts. We have also validated using a targeted NanoString assay in pediatric sepsis patients. While the IADM still needs to undergo optimization for rapid turnaround as well as a prospective interventional trial, it seems clear that molecular profiling of the host genome will become part of the clinical toolkit in the future.

One of skill in the art will understand that alternative methods to the bacterial/viral metascore can be used to develop a classifier capable of distinguishing between bacterial and viral infections. Any method of machine learning known in the art can be used to develop the classifier. The method of developing a classifier can include ensemble algorithms that are made of a multitude of algorithms such as logistic regression, support vector machines, and decision trees such as random forests and gradient boosted decision trees. The classification can be developed using neural networks, which include a large number of nodes arranged in layers, where the output from a node in the first layer is used as the input for a node in the next layer. Alternatively, the classification can be developed using a support vector machine model, which is a representation of the examples as points in space, mapped so that the examples of the separate categories are divided by a clear gap that is as wide as possible. New examples are then mapped into the same space and predicted to belong to a category based on which side of the gap the new examples fall on. One of skill in the art will understand that any number of machine learning algorithms can be used to develop a classification capable of distinguishing between a bacterial and viral infection.

Methods

Systematic Search and Multi-Cohort Analysis

We performed a systematic search in NIH GEO and EBI ArrayExpress for public human microarray genome-wide expression studies using the search terms: bact[wildcard], vir[wildcard], infection, sepsis, SIRS, ICU, nosocomial, fever, pneumonia. Abstracts were screened to remove all studies that were either (1) non-clinical, (2) performed using tissues other than whole blood or PBMCs, or (3) compared patients that were not matched for clinical time.

All microarray data were re-normalized from raw data (when available) using standardized methods. Affymetrix arrays were renormalized using gcRMA (on arrays with perfect-match probes) or RMA. Illumina, Agilent, GE, and other commercial arrays were renormalized via normal-exponential background correction followed by quantile normalization. Custom arrays were not renormalized. Data were log2 transformed, and a fixed-effect model was used to summarize probes to genes within each study. Within each study, cohorts assayed with different microarray types were treated as independent.

We performed multi-cohort meta-analysis as previously described^(7,15,16,27). Briefly, genes were summarized using Hedges' g, and the DerSimonian-Laird random-effects model was used for meta-analysis, followed by Benjamini-Hochberg multiple hypothesis correction⁶⁶. Patients with bacterial infections were compared to patients with viral infections within studies, such that a positive effect size indicates a gene was more highly expressed in virus-infected patients, and a negative effect size indicates a gene was more highly expressed in bacteria-infected patients.

In order to find a set of genes highly conserved in differential expression between bacterial and viral infections, we selected all cohorts which directly compared patients with bacterial and viral infections. Patients with documented co-infections (i.e. both bacterial and viral) were removed. Cohorts were required to have >5 patients in each group to be included in meta-analysis. Both PBMCs and whole blood cohorts were included. Significant genes were those which had an effect size >2-fold and an FDR<1% in a leave-one-dataset-out round-robin analysis. However, in order to ensure that both tissue types were represented in the final gene set, we also performed separate meta-analyses of the PBMCs and whole blood cohorts, and removed all genes which had an effect size <1.5-fold in either tissue type separately. The remaining genes were considered significant.

Derivation of 7-Gene Set

To find a set of highly diagnostic genes, the significant genes from the meta-analysis were run through a greedy forward search as previously described⁷. Briefly, this algorithm starts with zero genes and in each cycle adds one gene that best improves the AUC for diagnosis in the discovery cohorts, until a new gene cannot improve the discovery AUCs more than some threshold. The resulting genes are used to calculate a single ‘bacterial/viral metascore’, calculated as the geometric mean of the ‘viral’ response genes minus the geometric mean of the ‘bacterial’ response genes, times the ratio of the number of genes in each set. The resulting continuous score can then be tested for diagnostic power using ROC curves.

Derivation of Additional Gene Sets

In order to identify additional diagnostic gene sets, we implemented a recursive greedy forward search whereby, at the algorithm's conclusion, the resulting diagnostic gene set was removed from the possible set of significant genes, and the algorithm was run again. The first gene set was taken for further validation, but the other gene sets were noted to perform similarly in the discovery cohorts (Supplementary Table 3).

Direct Validation of 7-Gene Set

The resulting gene set was first validated in the remaining public gene expression cohorts which directly compared bacterial to viral infections but were too small to use for the meta-analysis. Two cohorts (GSE60244¹³ and GSE63990¹⁴) were made public after our meta-analysis was completed, and so were used for validation. To show generalizability, we also examined one large in vitro dataset comparing LPS to influenza exposure in monocyte-derived dendritic cells, but this was not included in the summary AUC as it is not expected to come from the same distribution as the clinical studies.

Summary ROC Curves

For both discovery and validation cohorts, summary ROC curves were constructed according to the method of Kester and Buntinx⁶⁷, and previously described¹⁶. Briefly, linear-exponential models are made of each ROC curve, and the parameters of these individual curves are summarized using a random-effects model to estimate the overall summary ROC curve parameters. The alpha parameter controls AUC (in particular, distance of the line from the line of identity) and the beta parameter controls skewness of the ROC curve. Summary AUC confidence intervals are estimated from the standard error of the alpha and beta in meta-analysis.

COCONUT Co-Normalization

There are dozens of public microarray cohorts that profiled patients with either bacterial or viral infections, but not both. It would be advantageous to be able to compare a gene score across these cohorts, but has not previously been possible because each different microarray has widely different background measurements for each gene, and among studies using the same types of microarrays there are large batch effects. In order to make use of these data, we needed co-normalize these cohorts in such a way that (1) no bias is introduced that could influence final classification (i.e., the normalization protocol should be blind to diagnosis); (2) there should be no change to the distribution of a gene within a study, and (3) a gene should show the same distributions between studies after normalization. A method with these characteristics would allow our gene score to be calculated and compared across multiple studies, and thus allow us to broadly test its generalizability.

The ComBat empiric Bayes normalization method³² is popular for cross-platform normalization, but crucially falls short of our desired criteria because it assumes an equal distribution across disease states. We thus developed a modified version of the ComBat method which co-normalizes control samples from different cohorts to allow for direct comparison of diseased samples from those same cohorts. We call this method COmbat CO-Normalization Using conTrols, or ‘COCONUT’. COCONUT makes one strong assumption, which is that it forces control/healthy patients from different cohorts to represent the same distribution. Briefly, all cohorts are split into the healthy and diseased components. The healthy components undergo ComBat co-normalization without covariates. The ComBat estimated parameters {circumflex over (α)}, {circumflex over (β)}, {circumflex over (σ)}, δ*, and γ* are obtained for each dataset for the healthy component, and then applied onto the diseased component (FIG. 10). This forces the diseased components of all cohorts to be from the same background distribution, but retains their relative distance from the healthy component (T-statistics within datasets are only different post-COCONUT due to floating-point math). Importantly, it also does not require any a priori knowledge of disease classification (i.e., bacterial or viral infection), thus meeting our prespecified criteria. This method does have the notable requirement that healthy/control patients are required to be present in a dataset in order for it to be pooled with other available data. Also, since healthy/control patients are set to be in the same distribution, it should only be used where such an assumption is reasonable (i.e., within the same tissue type, among the same species, etc.).

The ComBat Model and the COCONUT Method

As described by Johnson et al., the ComBat model corrects for location and scale of each gene by first solving an ordinary least squares model for gene expression, and then shrinking the resulting parameters using an empiric Bayes estimator, solved iteratively³². Formally, each gene expression level Y_(ijg) (for gene g for sample j in batch i) is assumed to be composed of overall gene expression α_(g), design matrix of sample conditions X with regression coefficients β_(g), additive and multiplicative batch effects γ_(ig) and δ_(ig), and an error term ε_(ijg):

Y _(ijg)=α_(g) +Xβ _(g)+γ_(ig)+δ_(ig)ε_(ijg)

Estimating parameters using ordinary least squares regression standardizes Y_(ijg) to a new term Z_(ijg) (where {circumflex over (σ)}_(g) is the standard deviation of ε_(ijg)):

$Z_{ijg} = \frac{Y_{ijg} - {\hat{\alpha}}_{g} - {X\;{\hat{\beta}}_{g}}}{{\hat{\sigma}}_{g}}$

The standardized data are now distributed according to:

Z_(ijg)˜N(γ_(ig), δ_(ig) ²), where γ_(ig)˜N(Y_(i), τ_(i) ²) and δ_(ig) ²˜inverse gamma(λ_(i), θ_(i))

The inverse gamma is assumed as a standard uninformative prior. The remaining hyperparameters are estimated empirically, with the derivation and solution found in the original reference³². The estimated batch effects γ_(ig)* and δ_(ig) ²* can then be used to adjust the standardized data to an empiric-Bayes batch-adjusted final output Y_(ijg)*:

$Y_{ijg}^{*} = {{\frac{{\hat{\sigma}}_{g}}{\delta_{ig}^{*}}\left( {Z_{ijg} - \gamma_{ig}^{*}} \right)} + {\hat{\alpha}}_{g} + {X\;{\hat{\beta}}_{g}}}$

In our modified version of this method (COCONUT), all of the above is performed according to the original method without modification. However, it is applied to only the healthy/control patients in each dataset (i.e. Y is a matrix of only healthy patient samples). The estimated parameters {circumflex over (α)}, {circumflex over (β)}, {circumflex over (σ)}, δ*, and γ* are all taken and applied directly to a matrix D that consists only of diseased patient sample (which must be ordered in the same manner as Y):

${E_{ikg} = \frac{D_{ikg} - {\hat{\alpha}}_{g} - {X\;{\hat{\beta}}_{g}}}{{\overset{\hat{}}{\sigma}}_{g}}}{D_{ikg}^{*} = {{\frac{{\hat{\sigma}}_{g}}{\delta_{ig}^{*}}\left( {E_{ikg} - \gamma_{ig}^{*}} \right)} + {\hat{\alpha}}_{g} + {X\;{\hat{\beta}}_{g}}}}$

We can thus obtain a batch-corrected version of diseased samples D*, which corrects for the differences between healthy controls, but does not change each submatrix D_(i) with respect to each Y₁.

Global ROCs

We used COCONUT co-normalization to test (1) all discovery cohorts and (2) all validation cohorts, even those containing only bacterial or only viral illness. We did this separately for the PBMCs and whole blood data, for reasons described above. After co-normalization, the distributions for the individual cohorts were plotted together to allow for direct comparison. For each plot, we show (1) the distribution of scores for each dataset, (2) the normalized gene expression levels for each gene within the diagnostic test, and (3) housekeeping genes which are expected to show no difference between classes based on meta-analysis. The healthy patients have been removed from these plots. However, to show that the distributions of genes between healthy and diseased patients within cohorts do not change after COCONUT co-normalization, we have also shown plots with both patient types with both target genes and housekeeping genes (FIG. 11). Genes with minimal effect size and minimal variance in meta-analysis were selected as housekeeping genes.

For each comparison, a single global ROC AUC was calculated, and a single threshold set to allow for an estimate of the real-world diagnostic performance of the tests. Thresholds for the cutoffs for bacterial versus viral infection were set to approximate a sensitivity for bacterial infection of 90%, since a bacterial infection false negative (i.e., the recommendation not to give antibiotics when antibiotics are needed) can be devastating.

Integrated Antibiotic Decision Model

The SMS can discriminate patients with severe acute infections from those with inflammation from other sources, however, it cannot distinguish between types of infection (FIGS. 5A and 5B). We thus tested an integrated antibiotics decision model (IADM) in which the 11-gene SMS is applied, followed by the 7-gene bacterial/viral metascore. This model thus identifies (1) whether a patient has an infection, and (2) if so, what type of infection is present (bacterial or viral). We were unable to identify enough validation cohorts with patients with non-infected inflammation that also included healthy controls, so in constructing the global ROCs both discovery and validation cohorts were used. Using the COCONUT co-normalization, global thresholds were set across all included cohorts, and these were applied to each individual dataset to test the ability of the IADM to correctly distinguish patients with non-infectious inflammation, bacterial infection, and viral infection. Healthy patients were not included as a diagnostic class as they were used in the co-normalization procedure. The IADM was also applied separately to all cohorts that had no healthy controls, but that included both (1) non-infected SIRS patients and (2) patients with both bacterial and viral infections.

Since positive and negative predictive value (PPV and NPV) are dependent on prevalence, and the prevalence of the data used here does not match the prevalence of infections in a hospital setting, we calculated PPV and NPV curves based on the sensitivity and specificity for bacterial infections attained with the integrated antibiotics decision model. Formally, NPV=specificity×(1-prevalence)/((1-sensitivity)×prevalence+specificity×(1-prevalence)); PPV=sensitivity×prevalence/(sensitivity×prevalence+(1-specificity)×(1-prevalence)).

NanoString Validation

Finally, 96 samples from independent patients (i.e., those never profiled via microarray) from the Genomics of Pediatric SIRS and Septic Shock Investigators trials¹⁸⁻²² were tested using a targeted NanoString⁵⁶ digital multiplex gene quantitation assay. The 18 genes were not re-normalized to any housekeeping genes. The SMS and bacterial/viral metascore genes were both assayed, and the diagnostic performance of the IADM was calculated.

All analyses were conducted in the R statistical computing language (version 3.1.1). Code to recreate the multi-cohort meta-analysis has been previously deposited and is available at khatrilab.stanford.edu/sepsis.

TABLE 1 Datasets used in the discovery and direct validation of the bacterial/viral metascore. CAP: community-acquired pneumonia. PICU: pediatric intensive care unit. RSV: respiratory syncytial virus. CMV: cytomegalovirus. MPV: metapneumovirus. Number Number Accession Author Tissue Platform Demographic Bacteria Virii Bacterial Viral A. Discovery datasets GSE6269 Ramilo PBMC GPL96 Children E. coli, S. Influenza 16 8 admitted aureus, S. with pneumo GPL570 infection S. aureus, S. Influenza 12 10 pneumo GPL2507 S. aureus, S. Influenza 73 18 pneumo GSE20346 Parnell Whole GPL6947 Adults with Unknown Influenza 12 8 Blood CAP bacterial pneumonia GSE40012 Parnell Whole GPL6947 Adults with Unknown Influenza 36 11 Blood CAP bacterial pneumonia GSE40396 Hu Whole GPL10558 Febrile Multiple Adenovirus, 8 35 Blood children in enterovirus, emergency rhinovirus, department HHV6 GSE42026 Herbeg Whole GPL6947 Children Streptococcus Influenza, 18 41 Blood admitted and RSV with Staphylococcus infection spp. GSE66099 Wong Whole GPL570 Septic Multiple Influenza, 109 11 Blood children in HSV, CMV, PICU BK, Adeno B. Validation datasets GSE15297 Popper Whole GPL8328 Febrile Scarlet fever Adenovirus 5 8 Blood Children (Streptococcus) GSE25504 Smith Whole GPL13667 Septic Multiple Rhinovirus, 11 3 Blood neonates CMV GPL6947 Multiple CMV 26 1 GSE60244 Suarez Whole GPL10558 Adults Gram positive Influenza, 22 71 Blood hospitalized and atypical RSV, MPV with LRTI GSE63990 Tsalik Whole GPL571 Adults with Multiple Multiple 70 115 Blood ARI E-MEXP- Almansa Whole GPL10332 Adults Gram positive, Influenza, 4 5 3589 Blood w/COPD Gram negative, RSV, MPV w/infection atypical

TABLE 2 Validation datasets that matched inclusion criteria and have a single known pathogen type (viral or bacterial). PICU: pediatric intensive care unit. RSV: respiratory syncytial virus. LRTI: lower respiratory tract infection. DHF: Dengue hemorrhagic fever. DSS: Dengue shock syndrome. Specific Number Number Accession Author Tissue Platform Demographic Pathogens Bacterial Viral E-MEXP- Irwin Whole GPL96 Malawian children S. pneumoniae, 12 0 3567 Blood with bacterial N. meningitis or meningitidis, pneumonia or H. influenzae GSE11755 Emonts Whole GPL570 Children in PICU with N. 6 0 Blood meningococcal sepsis meningitidis GSE13015 Pankla Whole GPL6106 Adults with bacterial B. 45 0 Blood GPL6947 sepsis pseudomallei 15 0 and others GSE22098 Berry Whole GPL6947 Children with Gram Staphylococcus 52 0 Blood positive infections and Streptococcus GSE28750 Sutherland Whole GPL570 Adults with Multiple 10 0 Blood community-acquired bacteria bacterial sepsis GSE29161 Thuny Whole GPL6480 Adults with native Staphylococcus 5 0 Blood valve infected and endocarditis Streptococcus GSE33341 Ahn Whole GPl571 Adults with septic S. aureus or E. 51 0 Blood bloodstream infections coli GSE40586 Lill Whole GPL6244 Bacterial meningitis Multiple 21 0 Blood bacteria GSE42834 Bloom Whole GPL10558 Bacterial Pneumonia 19 0 blood GSE57065 Cazalis Whole GPL570 Adults with bacterial Multiple 82 0 Blood septic shock bacteria GSE69528 Conejero Whole GPL10558 Adults with bacterial B. 83 0 Blood sepsis pseudomallei and others E-MTAB- van de Whole GPL570 Indonesian patients Dengue 0 30 3162 Weg Blood >14 years old with uncomplicated and severe dengue GSE17156 Zaas Whole GPL571 Volunteers with viral Influenza, 0 27 blood challenge peak RSV, symptoms rhinovirus GSE21802 Bermejo- Whole GPL6102 Adults with septic Influenza 0 12 Martin Blood influenza (H1N1) GSE27131 Berdal Whole GPL6244 Adults with septic Influenza 0 7 Blood influenza with (H1N1) mechanical ventilation GSE38900 Mejias Whole GPL10558 Children with acute RSV 0 28 blood GPL6884 LRTI Influenza, 0 153 RSV, rhinovirus GSE51808 Kwissa Whole GPL13158 Children and adults Dengue 0 28 blood with uncomplicated dengue and DHF GSE68310 Zhai Whole GPL10558 Adults with acute Mostly 0 211 Blood respiratory infections influenza and rhinovirus GSE16129 Ardura PBMC GPL6106 Children with invasive S. aureus 9 0 GPL96 Staph infections 46 0 GSE23140 Liu PBMC GPL6254 Children with acute S. pneumoniae 4 0 otitis media GSE34205 Ioannidis PBMC GPL570 Infants and children Influenza, RSV 0 79 with acute respiratory infections GSE38246 Popper PBMC GPL15615 Nicaraguan children Dengue 0 95 with uncomplicated dengue, DHF, and DSS GSE69606 Brand PBMC GPL570 Children with mild-to- RSV 0 26 severe RSV

SUPPLEMENTAL TABLE 1 List of all genes found to be significant (q < 0.01, ES > 2 fold overall and ES > 1.5 fold in both PBMCs and whole blood separately) in multi-cohort analysis. summary mean summary effect hetero- discovery effect size geneity overall overall FDR weighted size std.err. tau{circumflex over ( )}2 p value Q df p value (q value) AUC OAS1 1.184 0.146 0.105 0.003 21.322 7 4.56E−16 5.43E−12 0.808 IFIT1 1.422 0.203 0.192 0.007 19.389 7 2.47E−12 4.42E−09 0.826 TSPO −1.233 0.177 0.141 0.009 18.858 7 3.42E−12 5.79E−09 0.781 SAMD9 1.063 0.155 0.072 0.121 11.416 7 7.30E−12 9.66E−09 0.752 EMR1 −1.074 0.158 0.054 0.206 9.705 7 9.39E−12 1.12E−08 0.768 ISG15 1.625 0.242 0.278 0.008 19.227 7 1.79E−11 1.93E−08 0.829 HERC5 1.361 0.207 0.178 0.032 15.336 7 4.58E−11 3.89E−08 0.794 NINJ2 −1.008 0.154 0.048 0.223 9.434 7 5.75E−11 4.67E−08 0.741 DDX60 1.303 0.200 0.159 0.042 14.565 7 6.91E−11 5.25E−08 0.797 HESX1 1.107 0.172 0.091 0.116 11.549 7 1.28E−10 8.69E−08 0.749 IFI6 1.292 0.204 0.199 0.005 20.207 7 2.28E−10 1.33E−07 0.794 MX1 1.600 0.253 0.328 0.003 21.525 7 2.63E−10 1.49E−07 0.826 OASL 1.192 0.189 0.195 0.001 25.432 7 2.73E−10 1.52E−07 0.788 LAX1 1.114 0.178 0.103 0.097 12.125 7 3.59E−10 1.86E−07 0.769 ACPP −1.143 0.183 0.135 0.035 15.099 7 4.41E−10 2.19E−07 0.777 TBXAS1 −1.213 0.195 0.159 0.031 15.409 7 5.43E−10 2.55E−07 0.765 IFIT5 1.076 0.174 0.126 0.027 15.825 7 6.47E−10 3.00E−07 0.760 IFIT3 1.331 0.216 0.269 0.000 32.727 7 7.55E−10 3.42E−07 0.794 KCTD14 1.163 0.190 0.161 0.011 18.106 7 8.80E−10 3.83E−07 0.739 OAS2 1.379 0.230 0.346 0.000 56.480 7 1.99E−09 7.33E−07 0.830 PGD −1.121 0.189 0.130 0.062 13.439 7 2.95E−09 1.01E−06 0.752 RTP4 1.084 0.189 0.132 0.059 13.565 7 9.15E−09 2.68E−06 0.741 PARP12 1.189 0.208 0.193 0.021 16.436 7 1.12E−08 3.13E−06 0.769 LY6E 1.479 0.260 0.363 0.001 23.586 7 1.29E−08 3.48E−06 0.818 S100A12 −1.067 0.190 0.135 0.056 13.727 7 1.81E−08 4.58E−06 0.737 ADA 1.015 0.183 0.146 0.015 17.395 7 2.79E−08 6.47E−06 0.730 IFI44L 1.727 0.311 0.568 0.000 31.320 7 2.90E−08 6.63E−06 0.823 SORT1 −1.013 0.184 0.161 0.005 20.064 7 4.00E−08 8.89E−06 0.760 IFI27 2.299 0.423 1.147 0.000 50.156 7 5.67E−08 1.16E−05 0.867 RSAD2 1.573 0.292 0.528 0.000 35.451 7 7.48E−08 1.47E−05 0.825 IFI44 1.519 0.283 0.493 0.000 37.895 7 8.24E−08 1.57E−05 0.816 OAS3 1.285 0.240 0.344 0.000 33.835 7 9.09E−08 1.69E−05 0.808 IFIH1 1.014 0.192 0.183 0.003 21.908 7 1.36E−07 2.42E−05 0.788 TNIP1 −1.023 0.194 0.152 0.040 14.735 7 1.42E−07 2.50E−05 0.749 RAB31 −1.167 0.225 0.284 0.000 31.645 7 2.27E−07 3.70E−05 0.753 SIGLEC1 1.447 0.281 0.493 0.000 38.460 7 2.59E−07 4.13E−05 0.816 SLC12A9 −1.215 0.237 0.306 0.000 27.836 7 2.87E−07 4.43E−05 0.786 JUP 1.008 0.198 0.209 0.000 26.258 7 3.66E−07 5.40E−05 0.783 STAT1 1.009 0.199 0.260 0.000 59.749 7 3.78E−07 5.51E−05 0.739 CUL1 1.060 0.212 0.225 0.004 20.680 7 5.96E−07 7.91E−05 0.753 PLP2 −1.246 0.250 0.325 0.002 22.620 7 5.99E−07 7.92E−05 0.768 IMPA2 −1.428 0.290 0.485 0.000 29.554 7 8.28E−07 0.00010168 0.778 DNMT1 1.071 0.217 0.222 0.012 18.048 7 8.34E−07 0.00010169 0.741 IFIT2 1.103 0.226 0.273 0.001 23.533 7 1.01E−06 0.00011836 0.749 GPAA1 −1.275 0.265 0.432 0.000 43.119 7 1.50E−06 0.0001581 0.775 CHST12 1.177 0.246 0.342 0.000 27.608 7 1.62E−06 0.00016794 0.772 LTA4H −1.585 0.332 0.666 0.000 36.759 7 1.76E−06 0.00017814 0.766 RTN3 −1.045 0.221 0.307 0.000 46.192 7 2.39E−06 0.00022179 0.757 CETP −1.132 0.242 0.333 0.000 29.766 7 2.86E−06 0.00025585 0.728 ISG20 1.214 0.262 0.411 0.000 34.693 7 3.64E−06 0.00030743 0.758 TALDO1 −1.138 0.246 0.344 0.000 30.764 7 3.66E−06 0.00030848 0.737 DHX58 1.197 0.259 0.370 0.001 24.871 7 3.94E−06 0.00032598 0.732 EIF2AK2 1.347 0.293 0.554 0.000 47.713 7 4.28E−06 0.00034864 0.796 HK3 −1.109 0.242 0.304 0.002 22.157 7 4.53E−06 0.00036318 0.748 ACAA1 −1.077 0.235 0.309 0.000 28.834 7 4.61E−06 0.00036811 0.745 XAF1 1.300 0.288 0.552 0.000 55.144 7 6.56E−06 0.0004871 0.782 GZMB 1.203 0.267 0.394 0.000 26.203 7 6.72E−06 0.00049528 0.770 CAT −1.034 0.230 0.322 0.000 43.416 7 6.86E−06 0.00050173 0.710 DOK3 −1.035 0.233 0.295 0.001 25.110 7 9.08E−06 0.00062004 0.709 SORL1 −1.213 0.273 0.487 0.000 56.464 7 9.12E−06 0.00062162 0.777 PYGL −1.157 0.261 0.375 0.001 25.452 7 9.46E−06 0.00064062 0.754 DYSF −1.127 0.256 0.359 0.001 24.813 7 1.09E−05 0.00071449 0.748 TWF2 −1.081 0.248 0.326 0.002 23.101 7 1.27E−05 0.00078837 0.736 TKT −1.155 0.266 0.434 0.000 40.903 7 1.40E−05 0.000852 0.728 CTSB −1.080 0.249 0.403 0.000 64.209 7 1.48E−05 0.00088313 0.695 FLII −1.159 0.271 0.461 0.000 46.721 7 1.95E−05 0.00110142 0.716 PROS1 −1.250 0.296 0.520 0.000 31.989 7 2.37E−05 0.00127457 0.708 NRD1 −1.103 0.261 0.400 0.000 31.123 7 2.40E−05 0.00128279 0.730 STAT5B −1.013 0.240 0.343 0.000 44.775 7 2.46E−05 0.0013136 0.736 CYBRD1 −1.022 0.242 0.357 0.000 36.401 7 2.48E−05 0.00131834 0.715 PTAFR −1.083 0.257 0.403 0.000 39.437 7 2.55E−05 0.00134828 0.727 LAPTM5 −1.010 0.243 0.341 0.000 31.034 7 3.32E−05 0.00165747 0.718

SUPPLEMENTAL TABLE 2 Datasets with non-infected inflammatory conditions used to test the IADM. Other datasets are listed in Tables 1 & 2. ICU: intensive care unit. CAP: community-acquired pneumonia. SLE: systemic lupus erythematosus. Number Non-infected Infected Non- Number Accession condition condition infected Infected GSE28750 Post-surgical adults Adults with community- 11 10 acquired bacterial sepsis GSE40012 Non-infected SIRS in Adults with CAP in ICU 24 47 adult ICU GSE66099 Non-infected SIRS in Pediatric sepsis, severe 30 120 pediatric ICU sepsis and septic shock E-MEXP- Non-infected Hospitalized patients with 14 9 3589 hospitalized patients COPD with respiratory with COPD infections GSE22098 Children and adults Children with Gram 141 52 with SLE and Still's positive infections disease GSE42834 Adults with Adults with bacterial 99 19 sarcoidosis and lung pneumonia cancer

SUPPLEMENTAL TABLE 3 Diagnostic gene sets identified by using a recursive greedy forward search algorithm. Order in recursive GSE6269 GSE6269 GSE6269 forward positive in viral positive in bacterial gpl2507 gpl570 gpl96 search infection infection AUC AUC AUC 1 IFI27, JUP, LAX1 HK3, TNIP1, GPAA1, CTSB 0.992 1 0.976 2 OAS2, CUL1 SLC12A9, ACPP, STAT5B 0.977 0.967 0.935 3 ISG15, CHST12 EMR1, FLII 0.945 0.933 0.938 4 IFIT1, SIGLEC1, ADA PTAFR, NRD1, PLP2 1 1 0.944 5 MX1 DYSF, TWF2 1 0.925 0.916 6 RSAD2 SORT1, TSPO 0.961 0.942 0.947 7 IFI44L, GZMB, KCTD14 TBXAS1, ACAA1, S100A12 0.938 0.958 0.911 8 LY6E PGD, LAPTM5 0.984 0.967 0.916 9 IFI44, HESX1, OASL NINJ2, DOK3, SORL1, RAB31 0.961 0.967 0.94 10 OAS1 IMPA2, LTA4H 0.992 0.958 0.858 11 OAS3, EIF2AK2 TALDO1 0.945 0.992 0.928 12 DDX60, DNMT1 TKT 0.984 0.908 0.898 13 HERC5, IFIH1, SAMD9 PYGL, CETP, PROS1 0.961 0.925 0.925 14 IFI6 RTN3, CAT 0.938 0.983 0.913 15 IFIT3, IFIT5 CYBRD1 0.938 0.925 0.901 16 XAF1, ISG20, PARP12 null 0.867 0.925 0.944 17 IFIT2, DHX58, STAT1 null 0.883 0.9 0.848 Order in recursive GSE20346 GSE40012 GSE40396 GSE42026 GSE66099 mean forward gpl6947 gpl6947 gpl10558 gpl6947 gpl570 discovery search AUC AUC AUC AUC AUC AUC 1 1 1 0.879 0.938 0.844 0.954 2 1 0.977 0.896 0.858 0.817 0.928 3 1 0.949 0.9 0.858 0.796 0.915 4 1 0.975 0.907 0.858 0.764 0.931 5 1 0.977 0.961 0.848 0.706 0.917 6 1 0.952 0.879 0.9 0.736 0.915 7 1 0.977 0.918 0.854 0.746 0.913 8 1 0.977 0.864 0.885 0.697 0.911 9 1 0.957 0.889 0.851 0.742 0.913 10 1 0.939 0.904 0.875 0.716 0.905 11 0.979 0.851 0.793 0.847 0.717 0.882 12 0.99 0.929 0.829 0.886 0.65 0.884 13 0.958 0.902 0.811 0.85 0.678 0.876 14 1 0.889 0.854 0.79 0.651 0.877 15 0.958 0.866 0.729 0.858 0.645 0.852 16 0.948 0.841 0.764 0.837 0.598 0.84 17 0.938 0.879 0.736 0.833 0.578 0.824

SUPPLEMENTAL TABLE 4 Mean Area Under the Curve (AUC) for 2-Gene Combinations. Each 2-gene set was taken from the set of genes found by iterated greedy forward search (the pool of 71 genes). The AUC is the mean AUC across the discovery datasets. Only shown are those two-gene combinations with a mean AUC ≥ 0.80. Gene 1 Gene 2 AUC SIGLEC1 SLC12A9 0.925 IFI27 HK3 0.921 IFI27 S100A12 0.919 SIGLEC1 IMPA2 0.916 SIGLEC1 TBXAS1 0.916 IFI27 DYSF 0.915 IFI27 TNIP1 0.915 SIGLEC1 ACAA1 0.914 SIGLEC1 DYSF 0.914 IFI27 TSPO 0.913 OAS2 SLC12A9 0.913 IFI27 EMR1 0.912 SIGLEC1 HK3 0.912 IFI27 SLC12A9 0.911 IFI27 SORT1 0.911 OAS3 HK3 0.911 SIGLEC1 STAT5B 0.911 IFIT1 HK3 0.91 SIGLEC1 EMR1 0.91 IFI27 PGD 0.909 CUL1 IFI27 0.908 IFI27 JUP 0.908 IFI27 ACAA1 0.908 IFI27 GPAA1 0.908 IFI27 NRD1 0.908 IFI27 STAT5B 0.908 IFIT1 DYSF 0.908 OAS1 HK3 0.908 OAS1 SLC12A9 0.908 OAS2 PTAFR 0.908 OAS3 SLC12A9 0.908 SIGLEC1 FLII 0.908 SIGLEC1 TSPO 0.908 CHST12 IFI27 0.907 DNMT1 IFI27 0.907 IFI27 ACPP 0.907 IFI27 CETP 0.907 IFIT1 PTAFR 0.907 ISG15 PTAFR 0.907 MX1 DYSF 0.907 SIGLEC1 DOK3 0.907 IFI27 LAX1 0.906 IFI27 DOK3 0.906 IFI27 PTAFR 0.906 IFI27 RAB31 0.906 IFI27 SORL1 0.906 IFIT1 SLC12A9 0.906 ISG15 SORT1 0.906 MX1 EMR1 0.906 MX1 HK3 0.906 MX1 SLC12A9 0.906 MX1 SORL1 0.906 OAS2 DYSF 0.906 OAS2 TSPO 0.906 RSAD2 DYSF 0.906 IFI27 NINJ2 0.905 IFI27 PROS1 0.905 OAS1 DYSF 0.905 OASL DYSF 0.905 RSAD2 SLC12A9 0.905 SIGLEC1 ACPP 0.905 IFI27 FLII 0.904 IFI27 LAPTM5 0.904 IFIT1 EMR1 0.904 IFIT1 SORL1 0.904 MX1 PTAFR 0.904 OAS2 SORL1 0.904 OAS3 DYSF 0.904 OASL HK3 0.904 RSAD2 HK3 0.904 SIGLEC1 SORT1 0.904 CHST12 GPAA1 0.903 IFI27 CTSB 0.903 IFI27 IMPA2 0.903 IFI27 TBXAS1 0.903 IFI27 TWF2 0.903 IFIT1 SORT1 0.903 OAS2 ACAA1 0.903 OAS2 STAT5B 0.903 OAS3 SORT1 0.903 EIF2AK2 HK3 0.902 IFI27 MX1 0.902 IFI27 OAS2 0.902 IFI27 LTA4H 0.902 IFI27 PLP2 0.902 IFIT1 RAB31 0.902 ISG15 EMR1 0.902 ISG15 SLC12A9 0.902 MX1 TSPO 0.902 OAS2 HK3 0.902 OAS2 PGD 0.902 RSAD2 SORT1 0.902 SIGLEC1 PGD 0.902 SIGLEC1 PLP2 0.902 SIGLEC1 PTAFR 0.902 ADA IFI27 0.901 EIF2AK2 DYSF 0.901 JUP PGD 0.901 LY6E DYSF 0.901 LY6E TNIP1 0.901 MX1 IMPA2 0.901 OAS2 RAB31 0.901 IFI27 ISG20 0.9 IFI27 OAS1 0.9 IFI27 RSAD2 0.9 IFI27 TALDO1 0.9 IFI44 SLC12A9 0.9 ISG15 HK3 0.9 LY6E SLC12A9 0.9 MX1 DOK3 0.9 MX1 PGD 0.9 OAS3 EMR1 0.9 RSAD2 SORL1 0.9 SIGLEC1 TWF2 0.9 GZMB IFI27 0.899 IFI27 IFI44 0.899 IFI27 CYBRD1 0.899 IFI27 RTN3 0.899 ISG15 DYSF 0.899 JUP TSPO 0.899 LY6E HK3 0.899 LY6E PGD 0.899 OAS1 IMPA2 0.899 OAS1 TSPO 0.899 OAS2 IMPA2 0.899 RSAD2 EMR1 0.899 EIF2AK2 SLC12A9 0.898 IFIT1 IFI27 0.898 ISG15 IFI27 0.898 SIGLEC1 IFI27 0.898 IFI27 PYGL 0.898 IFI44 HK3 0.898 IFIT1 DOK3 0.898 IFIT1 IMPA2 0.898 JUP IMPA2 0.898 LY6E TSPO 0.898 MX1 ACPP 0.898 MX1 SORT1 0.898 MX1 STAT5B 0.898 OAS2 DOK3 0.898 OAS2 GPAA1 0.898 OAS3 SORL1 0.898 OASL PGD 0.898 OASL PTAFR 0.898 SIGLEC1 SORL1 0.898 SIGLEC1 TALDO1 0.898 IFI27 LY6E 0.897 IFI27 OAS3 0.897 ISG15 TSPO 0.897 LY6E EMR1 0.897 LY6E TBXAS1 0.897 MX1 RAB31 0.897 OAS2 ACPP 0.897 OAS2 NRD1 0.897 OAS2 TNIP1 0.897 OAS3 TBXAS1 0.897 OASL SORT1 0.897 OASL TSPO 0.897 SIGLEC1 LAPTM5 0.897 EIF2AK2 IFI27 0.896 EIF2AK2 SORT1 0.896 EIF2AK2 STAT5B 0.896 EIF2AK2 TSPO 0.896 HESX1 IFI27 0.896 IFIT2 IFI27 0.896 KCTD14 IFI27 0.896 PARP12 IFI27 0.896 IFI27 STAT1 0.896 IFI6 SORT1 0.896 IFIT1 ACPP 0.896 IFIT1 TSPO 0.896 ISG15 PGD 0.896 ISG15 SORL1 0.896 LY6E PTAFR 0.896 OAS1 SORT1 0.896 OAS1 TBXAS1 0.896 OAS2 EMR1 0.896 OAS2 LTA4H 0.896 OAS2 TBXAS1 0.896 OAS3 TSPO 0.896 OASL EMR1 0.896 OASL SLC12A9 0.896 SIGLEC1 GPAA1 0.896 IFI27 HERC5 0.895 HESX1 SLC12A9 0.895 IFI6 HK3 0.895 IFIT1 NINJ2 0.895 IFIT1 TBXAS1 0.895 ISG15 ACPP 0.895 MX1 NRD1 0.895 MX1 PLP2 0.895 MX1 TBXAS1 0.895 OAS2 FLII 0.895 OAS2 PLP2 0.895 OAS3 IMPA2 0.895 OAS3 PTAFR 0.895 IFI27 DDX60 0.894 EIF2AK2 IMPA2 0.894 EIF2AK2 SORL1 0.894 IFIH1 IFI27 0.894 IFI27 TKT 0.894 IFI44L PTAFR 0.894 IFIT1 ACAA1 0.894 LAX1 ISG15 0.894 ISG15 DOK3 0.894 ISG15 STAT5B 0.894 OAS1 RAB31 0.894 OAS2 NINJ2 0.894 OAS2 SORT1 0.894 OAS3 STAT5B 0.894 SIGLEC1 CTSB 0.894 DDX60 SORT1 0.893 EIF2AK2 PGD 0.893 EIF2AK2 PLP2 0.893 IFI44L IFI27 0.893 IFI6 IFI27 0.893 OASL IFI27 0.893 IFI27 CAT 0.893 IFI44L EMR1 0.893 IFI44L SLC12A9 0.893 IFI6 EMR1 0.893 IFI6 TSPO 0.893 IFIT1 STAT5B 0.893 ISG15 TNIP1 0.893 MX1 ACAA1 0.893 MX1 FLII 0.893 OAS1 EMR1 0.893 OAS1 PGD 0.893 OAS1 PLP2 0.893 OAS2 LAPTM5 0.893 SIGLEC1 RTN3 0.893 DDX60 SORL1 0.892 IFIT5 IFI27 0.892 IFI44 ACPP 0.892 IFI44 PTAFR 0.892 IFI44L ACPP 0.892 ISG15 GPAA1 0.892 ISG15 S100A12 0.892 ISG15 TBXAS1 0.892 LY6E IMPA2 0.892 LY6E SORT1 0.892 MX1 TNIP1 0.892 OAS1 PTAFR 0.892 OAS2 CTSB 0.892 RSAD2 STAT5B 0.892 SIGLEC1 LTA4H 0.892 SIGLEC1 NRD1 0.892 SIGLEC1 RAB31 0.892 SIGLEC1 TNIP1 0.892 IFI44 SORT1 0.891 IFI44L DYSF 0.891 IFI44L HK3 0.891 IFIT1 LAPTM5 0.891 IFIT1 PGD 0.891 IFIT1 PLP2 0.891 ISG15 RAB31 0.891 OASL IMPA2 0.891 DDX60 SLC12A9 0.89 EIF2AK2 RAB31 0.89 SAMD9 IFI27 0.89 IFI44 SORL1 0.89 IFIH1 SLC12A9 0.89 IFIT1 NRD1 0.89 IFIT3 DYSF 0.89 ISG15 TWF2 0.89 JUP ACPP 0.89 LY6E FLII 0.89 MX1 LTA4H 0.89 MX1 S100A12 0.89 MX1 TALDO1 0.89 OAS2 TWF2 0.89 OAS3 ACPP 0.89 OAS3 PLP2 0.89 PARP12 SLC12A9 0.89 RSAD2 RAB31 0.89 SIGLEC1 PYGL 0.89 EIF2AK2 DOK3 0.889 HERC5 HK3 0.889 IFIT3 IFI27 0.889 XAF1 IFI27 0.889 IFIT1 PYGL 0.889 IFIT3 HK3 0.889 ISG15 LAPTM5 0.889 ISG15 NINJ2 0.889 ISG15 PLP2 0.889 MX1 GPAA1 0.889 MX1 NINJ2 0.889 OAS1 CTSB 0.889 OAS1 LTA4H 0.889 OAS1 TALDO1 0.889 OAS2 TALDO1 0.889 OAS3 PGD 0.889 RSAD2 IMPA2 0.889 RSAD2 TBXAS1 0.889 SIGLEC1 TKT 0.889 CHST12 SLC12A9 0.888 DDX60 EMR1 0.888 DDX60 HK3 0.888 DDX60 TSPO 0.888 IFI44 EMR1 0.888 IFI44L STAT5B 0.888 LAX1 IFI6 0.888 IFI6 ACPP 0.888 LAX1 IFIT1 0.888 IFIT1 S100A12 0.888 IFIT1 TWF2 0.888 ISG15 ACAA1 0.888 ISG15 IMPA2 0.888 ISG15 LTA4H 0.888 ISG15 NRD1 0.888 JUP HK3 0.888 KCTD14 SLC12A9 0.888 LY6E GPAA1 0.888 LY6E LAPTM5 0.888 OAS1 ACPP 0.888 OAS1 TWF2 0.888 OAS2 CETP 0.888 OAS3 ACAA1 0.888 OAS3 DOK3 0.888 OAS3 RAB31 0.888 OASL TNIP1 0.888 RSAD2 PTAFR 0.888 RSAD2 TSPO 0.888 SIGLEC1 NINJ2 0.888 EIF2AK2 ADA 0.887 IFIT1 ADA 0.887 IFI27 DHX58 0.887 HERC5 EMR1 0.887 HERC5 SORT1 0.887 IFI44L SORL1 0.887 IFI6 SLC12A9 0.887 IFIT1 FLII 0.887 IFIT1 LTA4H 0.887 JUP PLP2 0.887 KCTD14 DOK3 0.887 LY6E ACAA1 0.887 MX1 CTSB 0.887 MX1 PYGL 0.887 OAS1 ACAA1 0.887 OAS1 SORL1 0.887 OASL TBXAS1 0.887 RSAD2 ACPP 0.887 MX1 ADA 0.886 CUL1 LTA4H 0.886 EIF2AK2 EMR1 0.886 HERC5 ACPP 0.886 HERC5 PTAFR 0.886 HERC5 SLC12A9 0.886 LAX1 IFI44 0.886 JUP IFI44L 0.886 IFI44L IMPA2 0.886 IFI6 DYSF 0.886 IFIH1 SORT1 0.886 ISG15 FLII 0.886 JUP DYSF 0.886 JUP FLII 0.886 JUP SLC12A9 0.886 LAX1 GPAA1 0.886 LY6E PLP2 0.886 LY6E TWF2 0.886 MX1 LAPTM5 0.886 OAS1 NRD1 0.886 OAS1 S100A12 0.886 OAS3 FLII 0.886 OASL ACPP 0.886 OASL DOK3 0.886 RSAD2 LTA4H 0.886 DHX58 EMR1 0.885 DHX58 SLC12A9 0.885 DHX58 SORT1 0.885 IFI44 TBXAS1 0.885 IFI44 TSPO 0.885 IFIH1 PTAFR 0.885 IFIT3 SLC12A9 0.885 MX1 LAX1 0.885 LY6E CTSB 0.885 LY6E DOK3 0.885 LY6E S100A12 0.885 LY6E STAT5B 0.885 MX1 TKT 0.885 MX1 TWF2 0.885 OAS1 FLII 0.885 OAS2 PYGL 0.885 OAS2 S100A12 0.885 OASL RAB31 0.885 PARP12 SORT1 0.885 RSAD2 NINJ2 0.885 RSAD2 S100A12 0.885 GPAA1 SORL1 0.885 IFI44 ADA 0.884 CUL1 SLC12A9 0.884 DDX60 ACPP 0.884 EIF2AK2 ACAA1 0.884 EIF2AK2 LAPTM5 0.884 EIF2AK2 S100A12 0.884 IFI44 GZMB 0.884 IFI44L ACAA1 0.884 IFI44L TBXAS1 0.884 IFI6 PLP2 0.884 IFI6 PTAFR 0.884 IFI6 RAB31 0.884 IFI6 S100A12 0.884 IFIT1 CTSB 0.884 IFIT3 PTAFR 0.884 ISG15 CTSB 0.884 ISG15 PYGL 0.884 JUP RAB31 0.884 JUP TBXAS1 0.884 OAS2 LAX1 0.884 LY6E SORL1 0.884 OAS1 NINJ2 0.884 OAS1 TKT 0.884 OAS2 RTN3 0.884 OASL S100A12 0.884 RSAD2 DOK3 0.884 RSAD2 LAPTM5 0.884 RSAD2 PLP2 0.884 RSAD2 TWF2 0.884 SIGLEC1 CETP 0.884 GPAA1 LTA4H 0.884 ISG15 DNMT1 0.883 ISG15 EIF2AK2 0.883 EIF2AK2 PTAFR 0.883 IFI44L NRD1 0.883 IFI44L PLP2 0.883 IFI44L SORT1 0.883 IFI44L TSPO 0.883 IFI6 TBXAS1 0.883 IFIT1 TNIP1 0.883 JUP PTAFR 0.883 JUP TALDO1 0.883 JUP TNIP1 0.883 RSAD2 LAX1 0.883 LY6E ACPP 0.883 LY6E RAB31 0.883 MX1 RTN3 0.883 OAS1 PYGL 0.883 OAS2 TKT 0.883 OAS3 CTSB 0.883 OASL PLP2 0.883 RSAD2 NRD1 0.883 LAX1 EIF2AK2 0.882 IFI44L GZMB 0.882 ISG15 GZMB 0.882 HESX1 ACAA1 0.882 JUP IFI44 0.882 IFI44 ACAA1 0.882 LAX1 IFI44L 0.882 IFI44L CTSB 0.882 IFI44L NINJ2 0.882 IFI6 ACAA1 0.882 IFI6 IMPA2 0.882 IFIH1 HK3 0.882 IFIT1 TALDO1 0.882 IFIT1 TKT 0.882 JUP ISG15 0.882 SIGLEC1 ISG15 0.882 ISG15 TKT 0.882 JUP GPAA1 0.882 JUP LTA4H 0.882 LY6E NINJ2 0.882 LY6E TALDO1 0.882 MX1 CETP 0.882 OAS1 DOK3 0.882 OAS1 STAT5B 0.882 OAS1 TNIP1 0.882 OAS3 LAPTM5 0.882 OAS3 TALDO1 0.882 OAS3 TNIP1 0.882 OASL NINJ2 0.882 RSAD2 ACAA1 0.882 RSAD2 CTSB 0.882 RSAD2 TNIP1 0.882 SAMD9 HK3 0.882 SAMD9 SLC12A9 0.882 LTA4H SLC12A9 0.882 MX1 DNMT1 0.881 EIF2AK2 ACPP 0.881 EIF2AK2 TNIP1 0.881 HERC5 DYSF 0.881 IFI44L RAB31 0.881 IFI44L S100A12 0.881 IFI6 NINJ2 0.881 IFI6 PGD 0.881 IFI6 TWF2 0.881 IFIT1 RTN3 0.881 IFIT3 EMR1 0.881 IFIT3 SORL1 0.881 JUP RTN3 0.881 JUP TWF2 0.881 KCTD14 SORT1 0.881 LAX1 SORL1 0.881 OAS3 LTA4H 0.881 OAS3 PYGL 0.881 OASL ACAA1 0.881 PARP12 EMR1 0.881 XAF1 SLC12A9 0.881 STAT5B LTA4H 0.881 ADA IFI44L 0.88 ADA ISG15 0.88 ADA RSAD2 0.88 DDX60 RAB31 0.88 DDX60 STAT5B 0.88 DNMT1 IFI6 0.88 EIF2AK2 TBXAS1 0.88 HERC5 SORL1 0.88 HERC5 TBXAS1 0.88 HESX1 LTA4H 0.88 HESX1 SORL1 0.88 IFI44 IMPA2 0.88 IFI44 RAB31 0.88 IFI44L DOK3 0.88 IFIH1 TSPO 0.88 IFIT5 RAB31 0.88 IFIT5 SORL1 0.88 JUP MX1 0.88 JUP NINJ2 0.88 JUP STAT5B 0.88 KCTD14 ACPP 0.88 KCTD14 GPAA1 0.88 KCTD14 LTA4H 0.88 KCTD14 PLP2 0.88 KCTD14 TNIP1 0.88 LAX1 OAS3 0.88 LAX1 SIGLEC1 0.88 LY6E LTA4H 0.88 OAS3 NINJ2 0.88 OAS3 TWF2 0.88 OASL RTN3 0.88 PARP12 STAT5B 0.88 RSAD2 PGD 0.88 RSAD2 PYGL 0.88 GPAA1 RAB31 0.88 GPAA1 SLC12A9 0.88 LTA4H TNIP1 0.88 ADA HERC5 0.879 ADA OAS3 0.879 CHST12 ISG15 0.879 CHST12 STAT5B 0.879 GZMB OAS3 0.879 HERC5 TSPO 0.879 IFI44 LY6E 0.879 IFI44 DYSF 0.879 IFI44 LTA4H 0.879 IFI44L PGD 0.879 IFI44L TWF2 0.879 IFIH1 DYSF 0.879 IFIT1 JUP 0.879 IFIT1 PROS1 0.879 IFIT3 SORT1 0.879 ISG15 CETP 0.879 ISG15 RTN3 0.879 OAS3 GPAA1 0.879 OASL PYGL 0.879 PARP12 SORL1 0.879 GPAA1 RTN3 0.879 ADA IFI6 0.878 CHST12 DDX60 0.878 CHST12 MX1 0.878 DDX60 LAX1 0.878 DHX58 PTAFR 0.878 DNMT1 IFIT1 0.878 GZMB IFIT1 0.878 GZMB MX1 0.878 GZMB RSAD2 0.878 HERC5 RAB31 0.878 IFI44 NINJ2 0.878 IFI44 STAT5B 0.878 IFI44L FLII 0.878 IFI44L LTA4H 0.878 IFI44L TNIP1 0.878 IFI6 DOK3 0.878 IFI6 LAPTM5 0.878 IFIH1 EMR1 0.878 IFIT3 ACPP 0.878 ISG15 CAT 0.878 ISG15 TALDO1 0.878 JUP CTSB 0.878 KCTD14 RSAD2 0.878 LAX1 OASL 0.878 LY6E RTN3 0.878 LY6E TKT 0.878 MX1 SIGLEC1 0.878 OAS3 S100A12 0.878 OASL TWF2 0.878 RSAD2 FLII 0.878 RSAD2 GPAA1 0.878 RSAD2 TALDO1 0.878 XAF1 DYSF 0.878 XAF1 SORT1 0.878 DDX60 IMPA2 0.877 DDX60 PTAFR 0.877 DDX60 TBXAS1 0.877 IFI44 DNMT1 0.877 IFI44L DNMT1 0.877 LAX1 HERC5 0.877 HESX1 SORT1 0.877 IFI44L LAPTM5 0.877 IFIT1 CAT 0.877 IFIT3 TBXAS1 0.877 JUP EMR1 0.877 KCTD14 PGD 0.877 OAS1 LAPTM5 0.877 OAS1 RTN3 0.877 OASL TALDO1 0.877 XAF1 EMR1 0.877 XAF1 PTAFR 0.877 LTA4H EMR1 0.877 CHST12 IFI44 0.876 CUL1 ACAA1 0.876 DHX58 SORL1 0.876 EIF2AK2 CTSB 0.876 EIF2AK2 RTN3 0.876 HESX1 ISG15 0.876 HESX1 EMR1 0.876 HESX1 PLP2 0.876 IFI44 KCTD14 0.876 IFI44 DOK3 0.876 IFI44 TNIP1 0.876 IFI44L KCTD14 0.876 IFI44L LY6E 0.876 IFI6 LTA4H 0.876 IFI6 STAT5B 0.876 IFIT1 KCTD14 0.876 IFIT1 GPAA1 0.876 JUP LAPTM5 0.876 JUP TKT 0.876 KCTD14 ACAA1 0.876 LY6E LAX1 0.876 SAMD9 LAX1 0.876 LY6E CETP 0.876 OASL CTSB 0.876 OASL SORL1 0.876 XAF1 HK3 0.876 XAF1 SORL1 0.876 IFIT1 CHST12 0.875 IFI44L CUL1 0.875 DDX50 ACAA1 0.875 EIF2AK2 LTA4H 0.875 HERC5 S100A12 0.875 HESX1 TBXAS1 0.875 HESX1 TSPO 0.875 IFI44 CTSB 0.875 IFI44 GPAA1 0.875 ISG15 IFI44L 0.875 SIGLEC1 IFI44L 0.875 IFI6 SORL1 0.875 MX1 ISG15 0.875 ISG20 SLC12A9 0.875 KCTD14 TSPO 0.875 LY6E PYGL 0.875 OAS2 CAT 0.875 OASL STAT5B 0.875 PARP12 PTAFR 0.875 RSAD2 PROS1 0.875 RSAD2 RTN3 0.875 ACPP GPAA1 0.875 CHST12 IFI44L 0.874 CHST12 TWF2 0.874 CUL1 TSPO 0.874 JUP DDX60 0.874 DDX60 DYSF 0.874 DDX60 LTA4H 0.874 DHX58 TSPO 0.874 EIF2AK2 NRD1 0.874 HERC5 IMPA2 0.874 HERC5 STAT5B 0.874 HESX1 ACPP 0.874 IFI44 PLP2 0.874 IFI44 S100A12 0.874 IFI44 TWF2 0.874 IFI44L RTN3 0.874 IFI44L TALDO1 0.874 IFI44L TKT 0.874 IFI6 ISG15 0.874 IFI6 SIGLEC1 0.874 IFI6 CTSB 0.874 IFIH1 ACAA1 0.874 IFIH1 SORL1 0.874 IFIT1 CETP 0.874 IFIT3 IMPA2 0.874 IFIT3 NINJ2 0.874 IFIT5 SORT1 0.874 LY6E ISG15 0.874 ISG15 CYBRD1 0.874 KCTD14 RTN3 0.874 OAS1 LAX1 0.874 LY6E NRD1 0.874 MX1 CAT 0.874 OAS3 NRD1 0.874 OAS3 TKT 0.874 OASL FLII 0.874 RSAD2 CETP 0.874 GPAA1 S100A12 0.874 LTA4H SORL1 0.874 ADA OASL 0.873 ADA SIGLEC1 0.873 CHST12 IMPA2 0.873 DDX60 DOK3 0.873 DNMT1 GPAA1 0.873 HERC5 GZMB 0.873 HERC5 PLP2 0.873 ISG15 IFI44 0.873 IFI44 CAT 0.873 IFI44 NRD1 0.873 OAS2 IFI44L 0.873 IFI44L CETP 0.873 IFI44L GPAA1 0.873 IFIH1 ACPP 0.873 IFIT1 CYBRD1 0.873 IFIT2 HK3 0.873 IFIT5 ACPP 0.873 IFIT5 SLC12A9 0.873 LAX1 KCTD14 0.873 MX1 KCTD14 0.873 XAF1 STAT5B 0.873 LTA4H TSPO 0.873 DDX60 ADA 0.872 OAS2 ADA 0.872 ADA GPAA1 0.872 RSAD2 CHST12 0.872 CHST12 ACAA1 0.872 CHST12 FLII 0.872 CHST12 LAPTM5 0.872 CHST12 PLP2 0.872 CHST12 PTAFR 0.872 CHST12 TBXAS1 0.872 CUL1 GPAA1 0.872 CUL1 SORL1 0.872 DDX50 PYGL 0.872 DHX68 DOK3 0.872 DNMT1 LTA4H 0.872 SIGLEC1 EIF2AK2 0.872 EIF2AK2 PYGL 0.872 JUP HERC5 0.872 HERC5 LTA4H 0.872 HESX1 IMPA2 0.872 SIGLEC1 IFI44 0.872 IFI44 TALDO1 0.872 IFI44L CYBRD1 0.872 IFI44L PROS1 0.872 IFI44L PYGL 0.872 IFI6 GPAA1 0.872 IFI6 RTN3 0.872 IFI6 TNIP1 0.872 RSAD2 JUP 0.872 OAS3 KCTD14 0.872 KCTD14 RAB31 0.872 LY6E CAT 0.872 LY6E PROS1 0.872 MX1 PROS1 0.872 OAS1 CAT 0.872 SIGLEC1 OAS2 0.872 OAS2 PROS1 0.872 OAS3 RTN3 0.872 PARP12 HK3 0.872 RSAD2 CYBRD1 0.872 RSAD2 TKT 0.872 SAMD9 SORT1 0.872 SIGLEC1 S100A12 0.872 LY6E ADA 0.871 OAS3 CHST12 0.871 DHX58 HK3 0.871 EIF2AK2 LY5E 0.871 EIF2AK2 CETP 0.871 EIF2AK2 TALDO1 0.871 EIF2AK2 TKT 0.871 HERC5 NINJ2 0.871 IFI6 HESX1 0.871 HESX1 RAB31 0.871 IFI44L CAT 0.871 IFI6 FLII 0.871 ISG15 IFIT1 0.871 SIGLEC1 IFIT1 0.871 IFIT2 PTAFR 0.871 IFIT5 HK3 0.871 IFIT5 TSPO 0.871 ISG15 PROS1 0.871 ISG20 PLP2 0.871 OAS3 JUP 0.871 JUP ACAA1 0.871 JUP CETP 0.871 LAX1 STAT5B 0.871 OAS1 CETP 0.871 OASL LAPTM5 0.871 PARP12 CTSB 0.871 PARP12 TSPO 0.871 SAMD9 EMR1 0.871 ACPP STAT5B 0.871 LTA4H PLP2 0.871 CHST12 IFI6 0.87 SIGLEC1 CUL1 0.87 DDX60 NINJ2 0.87 DDX60 NRD1 0.87 DHX58 IMPA2 0.87 DHX58 STAT5B 0.87 RSAD2 DNMT1 0.87 OAS2 GZMB 0.87 HERC5 ACAA1 0.87 HERC5 DOK3 0.87 IFI44 HESX1 0.87 HESX1 DOK3 0.87 HESX1 FLII 0.87 OAS2 IFI44 0.87 IFI44 PGD 0.87 IFI44 PYGL 0.87 ISG20 IFI44L 0.87 IFI6 NRD1 0.87 IFIH1 RAB31 0.87 MX1 IFIT1 0.87 LAX1 IFIT3 0.87 KCTD14 ISG15 0.87 RSAD2 ISG15 0.87 ISG20 GPAA1 0.87 JUP DOK3 0.87 KCTD14 CETP 0.87 RSAD2 LY6E 0.87 OAS2 MX1 0.87 OAS1 GPAA1 0.87 OAS1 PROS1 0.87 OASL TKT 0.87 RSAD2 CAT 0.87 GPAA1 IMPA2 0.87 GPAA1 STAT5B 0.87 LTA4H SORT1 0.87 CHST12 ACPP 0.869 ISG15 CUL1 0.869 CUL1 IMPA2 0.869 LY6E DDX60 0.869 DDX60 PGD 0.869 DHX58 DYSF 0.869 GZMB EIF2AK2 0.869 EIF2AK2 GPAA1 0.869 OASL GZMB 0.869 HERC5 TWF2 0.869 IFI44L HESX1 0.869 HESX1 PGD 0.869 IFI44 LAPTM5 0.869 IFI44 PROS1 0.869 OAS2 IFI6 0.869 IFI6 TALDO1 0.869 IFIH1 DOK3 0.869 IFIT5 STAT5B 0.869 OAS2 ISG15 0.869 ISG20 TNIP1 0.869 SIGLEC1 KCTD14 0.869 LY6E OAS2 0.869 OAS3 CETP 0.869 OASL CETP 0.869 SAMD9 TSPO 0.869 FLII LTA4H 0.869 SIGLEC1 CHST12 0.868 CHST12 EMR1 0.868 CIFIT1 ULI 0.868 DNMT1 DDX60 0.868 ISG15 DDX60 0.868 EIF2AK2 DNMT1 0.868 DNMT1 HERC5 0.868 IFI44L EIF2AK2 0.868 EIF2AK2 FLII 0.868 EIF2AK2 TWF2 0.868 LY6E GZMB 0.868 HERC5 LAPTM5 0.868 HERC5 PYGL 0.868 HESX1 DYSF 0.868 IFIT1 IFI44L 0.868 MX1 IFI44L 0.868 JUP IFI6 0.868 IFIH1 LTA4H 0.868 IFIT2 DYSF 0.868 IFIT2 SLC12A9 0.868 IFIT3 S100A12 0.868 IFIT3 STAT5B 0.868 IFIT3 TSPO 0.868 IFIT5 EMR1 0.868 IFIT5 IMPA2 0.868 OAS3 ISG15 0.868 JUP NRD1 0.868 JUP PYGL 0.868 KCTD14 TBXAS1 0.868 MX1 LY6E 0.868 SIGLEC1 LY6E 0.868 OASL LTA4H 0.868 PARP12 IMPA2 0.868 PARP12 RAB31 0.868 SIGLEC1 RSAD2 0.868 SAMD9 RAB31 0.868 SAMD9 S100A12 0.868 ACAA1 LTA4H 0.868 PLP2 SORL1 0.868 RAB31 SLC12A9 0.868 CHST12 TSPO 0.867 IFI44 CUL1 0.867 DDX60 PLP2 0.867 SIGLEC1 HERC5 0.867 HERC5 CTSB 0.867 HESX1 GPAA1 0.867 HESX1 RTN3 0.867 HESX1 STAT5B 0.867 IFI44 FLII 0.867 IFI44 TKT 0.867 RSAD2 IFI44L 0.867 IFI6 CETP 0.867 IFI6 TKT 0.867 IFIH1 S100A12 0.867 IFIH1 TBXAS1 0.867 ISG20 IFIT1 0.867 IFIT3 PLP2 0.867 IFIT3 RAB31 0.867 ISG20 IMPA2 0.867 ISG20 TSPO 0.867 JUP S100A12 0.867 KCTD14 IMPA2 0.867 KCTD14 TALDO1 0.867 PARP12 PLP2 0.867 XAF1 ACPP 0.867 GPAA1 TALDO1 0.867 OAS1 ADA 0.866 EIF2AK2 IFI44 0.866 OAS1 GZMB 0.866 SIGLEC1 GZMB 0.866 HERC5 PGD 0.866 LAX1 HESX1 0.866 MX1 HESX1 0.866 HESX1 CTSB 0.866 HESX1 HK3 0.866 HESX1 PTAFR 0.866 IFI44 ISG20 0.866 IFI44 CYBRD1 0.866 IFI6 IFI44L 0.866 KCTD14 IFI6 0.866 MX1 IFI6 0.866 IFI6 0.866 RSAD2 IFIH1 IMPA2 0.866 IFIH1 STAT5B 0.866 LY6E IFIT1 0.866 IFIT3 DOK3 0.866 IFIT3 TALDO1 0.866 ISG20 ISG15 0.866 SIGLEC1 JUP 0.866 KCTD14 NRD1 0.866 PARP12 LAX1 0.866 LAX1 SLC12A9 0.866 MX1 CYBRD1 0.866 SAMD9 ACPP 0.866 SAMD9 PTAFR 0.866 GPAA1 TSPO 0.866 SORL1 S100A12 0.866 CHST12 LTA4H 0.865 CHST12 PGD 0.865 CHST12 SORL1 0.865 CUL1 MX1 0.865 DDX60 GZMB 0.865 DHX58 ACAA1 0.865 EIF2AK2 IFIT1 0.865 EIF2AK2 OAS2 0.865 GZMB LTA4H 0.865 GZMB PGD 0.865 GZMB TSPO 0.865 HERC5 PROS1 0.865 HERC5 TALDO1 0.865 IFI44 CETP 0.865 IFI44 RTN3 0.865 IFI44L OASL 0.865 IFI6 PYGL 0.865 IFIH1 NRD1 0.865 IFIH1 PLP2 0.865 IFIH1 PYGL 0.865 OAS2 IFIT1 0.865 IFIT2 ACPP 0.865 IFIT3 PGD 0.865 ISG20 LTA4H 0.865 KCTD14 PTAFR 0.865 OAS2 CYBRD1 0.865 SIGLEC1 OAS3 0.865 OASL GPAA1 0.865 PARP12 LTA4H 0.865 SAMD9 IMPA2 0.865 SAMD9 SORL1 0.865 XAF1 TSPO 0.865 CETP SLC12A9 0.865 GPAA1 NRD1 0.865 GPAA1 TBXAS1 0.865 LAPTM5 LTA4H 0.865 CHST12 HERC5 0.864 CHST12 OAS1 0.864 OAS2 CHST12 0.864 CHST12 SORT1 0.864 OAS2 DDX60 0.864 DDX60 S100A12 0.864 DHX58 PLP2 0.864 OAS2 DNMT1 0.864 DNMT1 FLII 0.864 EIF2AK2 MX1 0.864 EIF2AK2 NINJ2 0.864 GZMB IFI6 0.854 HERC5 CAT 0.854 HERC5 FLII 0.854 HERC5 NRD1 0.854 HERC5 RTN3 0.854 HERC5 TNIP1 0.854 IFI44 IFI44L 0.864 IFI44 MX1 0.864 IFI44 RSAD2 0.864 IFI6 PROS1 0.864 IFIH1 ISG15 0.854 IFIT2 EMR1 0.864 IFIT2 SORL1 0.864 IFIT3 ACAA1 0.864 IFIT3 LTA4H 0.864 IFIT5 PLP2 0.864 ISG15 OAS1 0.864 ISG20 RAB31 0.854 ISG20 STAT5B 0.864 KCTD14 TKT 0.864 LAX1 LTA4H 0.864 PARP12 DYSF 0.864 PARP12 NINJ2 0.864 PARP12 TBXAS1 0.864 SAMD9 TBXAS1 0.854 GPAA1 PLP2 0.864 LTA4H PGD 0.864 S100A12 SLC12A9 0.864 ADA IFIT5 0.863 CUL1 PLP2 0.863 DDX60 CAT 0.863 DNMT1 OAS3 0.853 GZMB IFIT3 0.863 HERC5 ISG15 0.863 HESX1 OAS2 0.863 IFI44 OASL 0.863 IFI6 IFIT1 0.863 IFI6 LY6E 0.863 IFIH1 LAX1 0.863 IFIT3 JUP 0.863 IFIT3 RTN3 0.863 IFIT5 LTA4H 0.863 ISG15 OASL 0.863 ISG20 MX1 0.863 JUP SORL1 0.863 KCTD14 EMR1 0.863 KCTD14 FLII 0.863 KCTD14 LAPTM5 0.863 KCTD14 SORL1 0.863 KCTD14 STAT5B 0.863 LY6E OAS3 0.863 OASL PROS1 0.863 PARP12 ACPP 0.863 SAMD9 PYGL 0.863 CYBRD1 SLC12A9 0.863 LTA4H NRD1 0.863 LTA4H TBXAS1 0.863 RTN3 SLC12A9 0.863 ADA IFIT3 0.862 CHST12 LY6E 0.862 CHST12 NRD1 0.862 CUL1 TBXAS1 0.862 CUL1 TWF2 0.862 DDX60 KCTD14 0.862 DHX58 PGD 0.862 DHX58 TBXAS1 0.862 DNMT1 SORL1 0.862 EIF2AK2 IFI6 0.862 EIF2AK2 OAS3 0.862 HERC5 GPAA1 0.862 HERC5 TKT 0.862 HESX1 LY6E 0.862 IFI44L IFIH1 0.862 IFI44L OAS1 0.862 IFI44L OAS3 0.862 IFI6 CYBRD1 0.862 IFIT3 ISG15 0.862 IFIT3 PROS1 0.862 IFIT3 PYGL 0.862 IFIT3 TKT 0.862 IFIT5 ISG15 0.862 IFIT5 LAX1 0.862 IFIT5 S100A12 0.862 ISG20 RSAD2 0.862 JUP LY6E 0.862 MX1 RSAD2 0.862 OAS1 CYBRD1 0.862 OAS2 RSAD2 0.862 PARP12 ACAA1 0.862 STAT1 HK3 0.862 XAF1 PLP2 0.862 ACPP LTA4H 0.862 CTSB GPAA1 0.862 RAB31 STAT5B 0.862 SORL1 TSPO 0.862 ADA SAMD9 0.861 CHST12 EIF2AK2 0.861 CHST12 TNIP1 0.861 CUL1 LY6E 0.861 CUL1 RSAD2 0.861 CUL1 ACPP 0.861 CUL1 PTAFR 0.861 DDX60 SIGLEC1 0.861 DNMT1 OASL 0.861 HERC5 LY6E 0.861 HESX1 OAS3 0.861 HESX1 NRD1 0.861 IFI44 IFIT1 0.861 IFI6 ISG20 0.861 IFI6 CAT 0.861 IFIH1 TALDO1 0.861 IFIT3 TWF2 0.861 ISG20 SORL1 0.861 JUP OAS2 0.861 KCTD14 HK3 0.861 KCTD14 TWF2 0.861 LY6E CYBRD1 0.861 OAS3 RSAD2 0.861 OAS3 CAT 0.861 OAS3 PROS1 0.861 SAMD9 STAT5B 0.861 STAT1 SLC12A9 0.861 XAF1 IMPA2 0.861 GPAA1 CAT 0.861 GPAA1 CYBRD1 0.861 EMR1 GPAA1 0.861 GPAA1 TKT 0.861 IMPA2 LTA4H 0.861 SLC12A9 SORL1 0.861 STAT5B TBXAS1 0.861 IFIT3 CHST12 0.86 OASL CHST12 0.86 CUL1 NRD1 0.86 DDX60 CTSB 0.86 DDX60 TALDO1 0.86 DDX60 TWF2 0.86 DHX58 LAX1 0.86 DHX58 ACPP 0.86 DHX58 RAB31 0.86 LY6E DNMT1 0.86 SIGLEC1 DNMT1 0.86 HERC5 CYBRD1 0.86 HESX1 TWF2 0.86 MX1 IFIH1 0.86 IFIH1 FLII 0.86 IFIH1 RTN3 0.86 IFIH1 TKT 0.86 IFIH1 TWF2 0.86 IFIT3 IFIT1 0.86 IFIT2 IMPA2 0.86 LY6E IFIT3 0.86 MX1 IFIT3 0.86 IFIT3 CTSB 0.86 IFIT3 NRD1 0.86 IFIT5 DYSF 0.86 ISG20 ACAA1 0.86 ISG20 NINJ2 0.86 LAX1 JUP 0.86 LAX1 TNIP1 0.86 OAS1 LY6E 0.86 SIGLEC1 OAS1 0.86 RSAD2 OASL 0.86 SAMD9 DYSF 0.86 SIGLEC1 CAT 0.86 SIGLEC1 PROS1 0.86 XAF1 NINJ2 0.86 XAF1 NRD1 0.86 XAF1 TBXAS1 0.86 ACAA1 GPAA1 0.86 ACPP PR0S1 0.86 ACPP SORL1 0.86 CAT SLC12A9 0.86 EMR1 SORL1 0.86 HK3 LTA4H 0.86 MPA2 INRD1 0.86 LTA4H NINJ2 0.86 LTA4H TWF2 0.86 NRD1 TSPO 0.86 RTN3 STAT5B 0.86 SLC12A9 TSPO 0.86 CHST12 HK3 0.859 HERC5 CUL1 0.859 CUL1 RAB31 0.859 KCTD14 EIF2AK2 0.859 KCTD14 HERC5 0.859 HERC5 CETP 0.859 RSAD2 HESX1 0.859 HESX1 TALDO1 0.859 HESX1 TKT 0.859 IFI6 IFI44 0.859 OAS3 IFI44 0.859 STAT1 IFI44L 0.859 IFIH1 PGD 0.859 IFIT2 NINJ2 0.859 IFIT2 RAB31 0.859 IFIT2 TBXAS1 0.859 IFIT2 TSPO 0.859 IFIT3 KCTD14 0.859 IFIT3 FLII 0.859 IFIT3 LAPTM5 0.859 PARP12 ISG15 0.859 SAMD9 ISG15 0.859 ISG20 PGD 0.859 JUP PROS1 0.859 XAF1 LAX1 0.859 XAF1 LY6E 0.859 OAS3 MX1 0.859 PARP12 PGD 0.859 SAMD9 LTA4H 0.859 XAF1 ACAA1 0.859 IMPA2 STAT5B 0.859 LTA4H RTN3 0.859 PROS1 SLC12A9 0.859 S100A12 SORT1 0.859 SORL1 TBXAS1 0.859 SORL1 TWF2 0.859 HESX1 ADA 0.858 XAF1 ADA 0.858 HESX1 CHST12 0.858 IFI6 CUL1 0.858 DDX60 GPAA1 0.858 DDX60 LAPTM5 0.858 DDX60 PROS1 0.858 DHX58 GPAA1 0.858 IFIT3 DNMT1 0.858 XAF1 DNMT1 0.858 EIF2AK2 PROS1 0.858 XAF1 GZMB 0.858 GZMB RAB31 0.858 HESX1 LAPTM5 0.858 IFIT3 IFI44L 0.858 RSAD2 IFIT1 0.858 IFIT3 TNIP1 0.858 IFIT5 NINJ2 0.858 IFIT5 TBXAS1 0.858 SIGLEC1 ISG20 0.858 ISG20 EMR1 0.858 ISG20 TALDO1 0.858 OAS1 JUP 0.858 KCTD14 DYSF 0.858 SAMD9 LY6E 0.858 STATl LY6E 0.858 OASL MX1 0.858 OASL NRD1 0.858 STAT1 SORL1 0.858 STAT1 TSPO 0.858 XAF1 TNIP1 0.858 ACPP FLII 0.858 ACPP TNIP1 0.858 SLC12A9 TNIP1 0.858 SORL1 SORT1 0.858 DHX58 ADA 0.857 OAS2 CUL1 0.857 CUL1 HK3 0.857 CUL1 PGD 0.857 DDX60 FLII 0.857 DDX60 TNIP1 0.857 DHX58 NINJ2 0.857 OAS1 DNMT1 0.857 RSAD2 EIF2AK2 0.857 EIF2AK2 CAT 0.857 KCTD14 GZMB 0.857 GZMB IMPA2 0.857 IFI44L HERC5 0.857 IFIT5 IFI44L 0.857 PARP12 IFI44L 0.857 SAMD9 IFI44L 0.857 IFIT3 IFI6 0.857 OAS3 IFI6 0.857 IFIH1 CTSB 0.857 IFIH1 GPAA1 0.857 IFIH1 NINJ2 0.857 IFIT2 SORT1 0.857 IFIT3 CAT 0.857 IFIT5 NRD1 0.857 XAF1 JUP 0.857 KCTD14 NINJ2 0.857 PARP12 DOK3 0.857 PARP12 LAPTM5 0.857 SAMD9 ACAA1 0.857 STAT1 PTAFR 0.857 XAF1 DOK3 0.857 XAF1 PGD 0.857 ACAA1 SORL1 0.857 ACPP CETP 0.857 ACPP RTN3 0.857 CYBRD1 STAT5B 0.857 GPAA1 NINJ2 0.857 GPAA1 SORT1 0.857 IMPA2 S100A12 0.857 NRD1 TBXAS1 0.857 STAT5B TSPO 0.857 ADA LTA4H 0.856 CHST12 CTSB 0.856 CHST12 DOK3 0.856 CHST12 DYSF 0.856 EIF2AK2 CUL1 0.856 OAS3 CUL1 0.856 CUL1 TALDO1 0.856 RSAD2 DDX60 0.856 DDX60 RTN3 0.856 DHX58 LTA4H 0.856 DNMT1 STAT5B 0.856 GZMB SORL1 0.856 OAS2 HERC5 0.856 IFIT1 HESX1 0.856 OAS1 IFI44 0.856 IFIT2 IFI44L 0.856 LY6E IFIH1 0.856 IFIT2 S100A12 0.856 RSAD2 IFIT3 0.856 SIGLEC1 IFIT3 0.856 XAF1 ISG15 0.856 ISG20 LY6E 0.856 ISG20 ACPP 0.856 ISG20 NRD1 0.856 ISG20 TWF2 0.856 KCTD14 LY6E 0.856 OAS2 KCTD14 0.856 OAS1 MX1 0.856 PARP12 NRD1 0.856 PARP12 TNIP1 0.856 XAF1 CTSB 0.856 XAF1 S100A12 0.856 ACPP CTSB 0.856 ACPP SORT1 0.856 CAT EMR1 0.856 LTA4H TALDO1 0.856 PLP2 STAT5B 0.856 KCTD14 ADA 0.855 ADA EMR1 0.855 CHST12 TKT 0.855 CUL1 FLII 0.855 CUL1 RTN3 0.855 DDX60 TKT 0.855 GZMB DHX58 0.855 IFIT1 DHX58 0.855 DNMT1 TWF2 0.855 GZMB PLP2 0.855 GZMB S100A12 0.855 GZMB TKT 0.855 MX1 HERC5 0.855 SIGLEC1 IFIH1 0.855 IFIH1 TNIP1 0.855 OAS1 IFIT1 0.855 OAS3 IFIT1 0.855 OASL IFIT1 0.855 IFIT2 PYGL 0.855 IFIT3 OAS2 0.855 IFIT3 GPAA1 0.855 IFIT5 PTAFR 0.855 IFIT5 PYGL 0.855 OAS2 ISG20 0.855 OAS1 KCTD14 0.855 LAX1 FLII 0.855 LAX1 IMPA2 0.855 LAX1 PGD 0.855 STAT1 EMR1 0.855 STAT1 SORT1 0.855 XAF1 TALDO1 0.855 XAF1 TWF2 0.855 CETP STAT5B 0.855 GPAA1 HK3 0.855 GPAA1 PYGL 0.855 IMPA2 SLC12A9 0.855 LAPTM5 SORL1 0.855 LTA4H RAB31 0.855 LTA4H S100A12 0.855 RAB31 SORL1 0.855 SORT1 STAT5B 0.855 PARP12 ADA 0.854 CHST12 RAB31 0.854 CUL1 DYSF 0.854 IFI44L DDX60 0.854 DHX58 TNIP1 0.854 DHX58 TWF2 0.854 HESX1 EIF2AK2 0.854 EIF2AK2 JUP 0.854 JUP GZMB 0.854 GZMB GPAA1 0.854 GZMB TALDO1 0.854 GZMB TBXAS1 0.854 HESX1 HERC5 0.854 IFIT1 HERC5 0.854 OAS1 HESX1 0.854 HESX1 PYGL 0.854 XAF1 IFI44L 0.854 IFIH1 CAT 0.854 IFIH1 CETP 0.854 IFIT3 CETP 0.854 IFIT5 ACAA1 0.854 STAT1 ISG15 0.854 ISG20 FLII 0.854 ISG20 LAPTM5 0.854 ISG20 TBXAS1 0.854 SAMD9 JUP 0.854 JUP CAT 0.854 KCTD14 CTSB 0.854 OAS2 OAS1 0.854 OAS3 OAS2 0.854 PARP12 PYGL 0.854 PARP12 TWF2 0.854 SAMD9 NRD1 0.854 XAF1 LAPTM5 0.854 XAF1 RAB31 0.854 CTSB TSPO 0.854 DYSF LTA4H 0.854 EMR1 RTN3 0.854 EMR1 STAT5B 0.854 PLP2 SLC12A9 0.854 S100A12 STAT5B 0.854 IFIT1 DDX60 0.853 MX1 DDX60 0.853 DDX60 CETP 0.853 MX1 DHX58 0.853 PARP12 DNMT1 0.853 DNMT1 SLC12A9 0.853 DNMT1 TKT 0.853 GZMB CTSB 0.853 GZMB SLC12A9 0.853 IFI44 HERC5 0.853 ISG20 HERC5 0.853 HESX1 TNIP1 0.853 PARP12 IFI44 0.853 OAS1 IFI6 0.853 OAS2 IFIH1 0.853 IFIT3 CYBRD1 0.853 IFIT5 DOK3 0.853 IFIT5 RTN3 0.853 ISG20 DYSF 0.853 KCTD14 PYGL 0.853 RSAD2 OAS1 0.853 PARP12 FLII 0.853 PARP12 S100A12 0.853 SAMD9 PGD 0.853 SIGLEC1 CYBRD1 0.853 STAT1 IMPA2 0.853 XAF1 LTA4H 0.853 CYBRD1 SORL1 0.853 DYSF GPAA1 0.853 EMR1 SLC12A9 0.853 IFIH1 ADA 0.852 ADA TWF2 0.852 CUL1 SORT1 0.852 CUL1 STAT5B 0.852 IFI44L DHX58 0.852 DHX58 PYGL 0.852 DNMT1 IMPA2 0.852 EIF2AK2 CYBRD1 0.852 HESX1 GZMB 0.852 GZMB TWF2 0.852 RSAD2 HERC5 0.852 OASL IFI6 0.852 LAX1 IFIT2 0.852 IFIT2 CTSB 0.852 LY6E IFIT5 0.852 IFIT5 CAT 0.852 ISG20 HK3 0.852 OASL OAS2 0.852 PARP12 RTN3 0.852 PARP12 TKT 0.852 SAMD9 NINJ2 0.852 SAMD9 PLP2 0.852 SIGLEC1 STAT1 0.852 STAT1 DYSF 0.852 XAF1 FLII 0.852 XAF1 TKT 0.852 ACPP IMPA2 0.852 CAT SORL1 0.852 CETP SORT1 0.852 CTSB LTA4H 0.852 CTSB RAB31 0.852 DOK3 LTA4H 0.852 EMR1 IMPA2 0.852 FLII S100A12 0.852 GPAA1 TNIP1 0.852 IMPA2 SORL1 0.852 NINJ2 SORL1 0.852 STAT5B TWF2 0.852 CHST12 IFIH1 0.851 CHST12 S100A12 0.851 IFI44 DHX58 0.851 DHX58 CTSB 0.851 DHX58 NRD1 0.851 DHX58 RTN3 0.851 SAMD9 DNMT1 0.851 EIF2AK2 ISG20 0.851 IFIT2 GZMB 0.851 GZMB HK3 0.851 GZMB NINJ2 0.851 GZMB PROS1 0.851 HESX1 CETP 0.851 IFIT3 IFI44 0.851 IFIH1 IFI6 0.851 IFIT2 LTA4H 0.851 IFIT2 PGD 0.851 IFIT2 PLP2 0.851 IFIT5 RSAD2 0.851 IFIT5 CYBRD1 0.851 ISG20 OAS3 0.851 ISG20 CETP 0.851 JUP SORT1 0.851 LAX1 TSPO 0.851 LY6E OASL 0.851 MX1 XAF1 0.851 OAS1 OAS3 0.851 OAS2 XAF1 0.851 PARP12 TALDO1 0.851 STAT1 TBXAS1 0.851 XAF1 GPAA1 0.851 XAF1 RTN3 0.851 SLC12A9 LAPTM5 0.851 NRD1 SLC12A9 0.851 RTN3 SORL1 0.851 S100A12 TBXAS1 0.851 SLC12A9 TWF2 0.851 TNIP1 SORL1 0.851 ADA SLC12A9 0.85 CHST12 SAMD9 0.85 CHST12 CETP 0.85 CULl TKT 0.85 DDX60 EIF2AK2 0.85 DHX58 SIGLEC1 0.85 GZMB ACAA1 0.85 GZMB ACPP 0.85 GZMB FLII 0.85 GZMB PYGL 0.85 IFIH1 RSAD2 0.85 IFIT1 XAF1 0.85 IFIT2 RTN3 0.85 IFIT5 MX1 0.85 ISG20 TKT 0.85 KCTD14 XAF1 0.85 MX1 PARP12 0.85 OAS3 CYBRD1 0.85 OASL CAT 0.85 OASL CYBRD1 0.85 PARP12 GPAA1 0.85 RSAD2 XAF1 0.85 SIGLEC1 XAF1 0.85 STAT1 LTA4H 0.85 ACAA1 RTN3 0.85 ACPP CAT 0.85 ACPP PGD 0.85 ACPP SLC12A9 0.85 CAT IMPA2 0.85 CTSB IMPA2 0.85 EMR1 S100A12 0.85 GPAA1 PGD 0.85 NINJ2 SLC12A9 0.85 S100A12 TWF2 0.85 CHST12 NINJ2 0.849 CUL1 CTSB 0.849 CUL1 NINJ2 0.849 DDX60 OASL 0.849 DHX58 ISG15 0.849 DHX58 OAS2 0.849 DHX58 RSAD2 0.849 DHX58 FLII 0.849 DNMT1 TSPO 0.849 EIF2AK2 HERC5 0.849 EIF2AK2 IFIT3 0.849 GZMB PARP12 0.849 GZMB CETP 0.849 HERC5 IFI6 0.849 HERC5 OAS3 0.849 HESX1 NINJ2 0.849 IFIT1 IFIT5 0.849 IFIT2 TALDO1 0.849 IFIT5 SIGLEC1 0.849 IFIT5 CTSB 0.849 IFIT5 PGD 0.849 IFIT5 PROS1 0.849 JUP OASL 0.849 KCTD14 S100A12 0.849 LAX1 PTAFR 0.849 PARP12 RSAD2 0.849 SAMD9 CAT 0.849 XAF1 PYGL 0.849 ACPP NRD1 0.849 LTA4H PTAFR 0.849 ADA IFIT2 0.848 CHST12 JUP 0.848 CHST12 XAF1 0.848 CUL1 IFIT3 0.848 CUL1 CAT 0.848 DDX60 CYBRD1 0.848 DHX58 LAPTM5 0.848 DNMT1 TALDO1 0.848 EIF2AK2 OAS1 0.848 GZMB IFIH1 0.848 GZMB DYSF 0.848 HERC5 IFIT3 0.848 IFI6 PARP12 0.848 IFIH1 IFIT1 0.848 IFIH1 LAPTM5 0.848 IFIT2 MX1 0.848 ISG20 DOK3 0.848 ISG20 PTAFR 0.848 JUP STAT1 0.848 LAX1 ACAA1 0.848 LAX1 TBXAS1 0.848 LAX1 TKT 0.848 LY6E PARP12 0.848 OAS2 SAMD9 0.848 PARP12 CETP 0.848 STAT1 ACPP 0.848 ACPP LAPTM5 0.848 ACPP PLP2 0.848 CAT LTA4H 0.848 CETP GPAA1 0.848 CYBRD1 EMR1 0.848 PLP2 NRD1 0.848 PROS1 STAT5B 0.848 S100A12 TNIP1 0.848 SLC12A9 TALDO1 0.848 SLC12A9 TBXAS1 0.848 SLC12A9 TKT 0.848 STAT5B TALDO1 0.848 STAT5B TKT 0.848 ADA TNIP1 0.847 DHX58 CHST12 0.847 CHST12 TALDO1 0.847 CUL1 EMR1 0.847 IFI44 DDX60 0.847 IFI6 DDX60 0.847 JUP DHX58 0.847 IFIT5 DNMT1 0.847 DNMT1 CETP 0.847 OASL HERC5 0.847 HESX1 CAT 0.847 IFIH1 IFI44 0.847 XAF1 IFI44 0.847 XAF1 IFI6 0.847 IFIT2 DOK3 0.847 OAS2 IFIT5 0.847 IFIT5 TNIP1 0.847 LAX1 LAPTM5 0.847 LAX1 NRD1 0.847 SAMD9 MX1 0.847 STAT1 MX1 0.847 PARP12 SIGLEC1 0.847 SAMD9 CTSB 0.847 SAMD9 DOK3 0.847 ACPP TSPO 0.847 CYBRD1 IMPA2 0.847 PGD EMR1 0.847 PYGL EMR1 0.847 GPAA1 PROS1 0.847 IMPA2 SORT1 0.847 LAPTM5 NRD1 0.847 PLP2 RTN3 0.847 PROS1 SORL1 0.847 RAB31 TBXAS1 0.847 S100A12 TSPO 0.847 JUP ADA 0.846 ADA IMPA2 0.846 ADA TBXAS1 0.846 ADA TSPO 0.846 KCTD14 CHST12 0.846 CHST12 CAT 0.846 CHST12 RTN3 0.846 OAS1 CUL1 0.846 OASL CUL1 0.846 CUL1 PYGL 0.846 ISG20 DDX60 0.846 OAS1 DDX60 0.846 IFIH1 DNMT1 0.846 DNMT1 NRD1 0.846 IFIH1 EIF2AK2 0.846 GZMB TNIP1 0.846 OAS1 HERC5 0.846 JUP HESX1 0.846 PARP12 IFIT1 0.846 STAT1 IFIT1 0.846 ISG20 RTN3 0.846 ISG20 S100A12 0.846 LAX1 PLP2 0.846 SAMD9 RSAD2 0.846 SAMD9 PROS1 0.846 STAT1 ACAA1 0.846 STAT1 PYGL 0.846 ACAA1 NRD1 0.846 ACAA1 STAT5B 0.846 CETP SORL1 0.846 IMPA2 TNIP1 0.846 LTA4H TKT 0.846 NRD1 PGD 0.846 NRD1 RTN3 0.846 PGD SLC12A9 0.846 PGD STAT5B 0.846 SLC12A9 SORT1 0.846 ADA ACPP 0.845 CUL1 S100A12 0.845 DNMT1 DHX58 0.845 DHX58 S100A12 0.845 DNMT1 CAT 0.845 GZMB CAT 0.845 GZMB EMR1 0.845 GZMB PTAFR 0.845 IFIT3 HESX1 0.845 SIGLEC1 HESX1 0.845 JUP IFIH1 0.845 ISG15 IFIT2 0.845 IFIT2 PROS1 0.845 IFIT5 TALDO1 0.845 IFIT5 TKT 0.845 OAS1 ISG20 0.845 ISG20 CTSB 0.845 JUP CYBRD1 0.845 KCTD14 CAT 0.845 LAX1 ACPP 0.845 LAX1 EMR1 0.845 OASL OAS3 0.845 PARP12 CYBRD1 0.845 SAMD9 CYBRD1 0.845 STAT1 S100A12 0.845 CYBRD1 SORT1 0.845 EMR1 RAB31 0.845 NRD1 TWF2 0.845 PLP2 TSPO 0.845 PYGL SLC12A9 0.845 RAB31 TSPO 0.845 RTN3 TBXAS1 0.845 SORT1 TSPO 0.845 IFIT5 CHST12 0.844 PARP12 CHST12 0.844 CUL1 TNIP1 0.844 OAS3 DDX60 0.844 IFI6 DHX58 0.844 IFIH1 DHX58 0.844 HESX1 DNMT1 0.844 DNMT1 PGD 0.844 IFIH1 HERC5 0.844 OAS3 IFIT3 0.844 OASL IFIT3 0.844 IFIT5 TWF2 0.844 OASL ISG20 0.844 ISG20 CAT 0.844 ISG20 PYGL 0.844 OASL KCTD14 0.844 PARP12 KCTD14 0.844 STAT1 OAS2 0.844 XAF1 OAS3 0.844 PARP12 CAT 0.844 PARP12 PROS1 0.844 XAF1 CAT 0.844 XAF1 CETP 0.844 XAF1 PROS1 0.844 ACAA1 SLC12A9 0.844 CTSB SORL1 0.844 CTSB STAT5B 0.844 EMR1 PROS1 0.844 EMR1 TSPO 0.844 FLII RAB31 0.844 FLII SORL1 0.844 GPAA1 LAPTM5 0.844 MPA2 IPLP2 0.844 IMPA2 TSPO 0.844 RAB31 SORT1 0.844 RAB31 TNIP1 0.844 TBXAS1 TNIP1 0.844 HESX1 DDX60 0.843 IFIT3 DDX60 0.843 DHX58 TKT 0.843 DNMT1 TBXAS1 0.843 OASL HESX1 0.843 IFIT5 IFI44 0.843 IFIH1 CYBRD1 0.843 IFIT2 TKT 0.843 OAS3 IFIT5 0.843 IFIT5 LAPTM5 0.843 ISG20 SORT1 0.843 LAX1 CETP 0.843 OASL OAS1 0.843 PARP12 OAS2 0.843 XAF1 CYBRD1 0.843 ACAA1 CAT 0.843 ACPP TALDO1 0.843 CAT TNIP1 0.843 CETP EMR1 0.843 CETP LTA4H 0.843 CTSB SORT1 0.843 CYBRD1 LTA4H 0.843 CYBRD1 PLP2 0.843 EMR1 NRD1 0.843 IMPA2 RAB31 0.843 IMPA2 RTN3 0.843 LTA4H PYGL 0.843 NINJ2 PGD 0.843 NINJ2 STAT5B 0.843 NINJ2 TSPO 0.843 PROS1 SORT1 0.843 RTN3 S100A12 0.843 RTN3 SORT1 0.843 RTN3 TSPO 0.843 SORL1 TKT 0.843 ADA FLII 0.842 CHST12 PYGL 0.842 DDX60 CUL1 0.842 HERC5 DDX60 0.842 PARP12 DDX60 0.842 LY6E DHX58 0.842 EIF2AK2 OASL 0.842 GZMB NRD1 0.842 HESX1 CYBRD1 0.842 IFI44 STAT1 0.842 IFI6 IFIT5 0.842 IFIH1 PROS1 0.842 OAS2 IFIT2 0.842 OAS1 IFIT3 0.842 IFIT5 CETP 0.842 PARP12 JUP 0.842 KCTD14 CYBRD1 0.842 KCTD14 PROS1 0.842 STAT1 LAX1 0.842 LAX1 CTSB 0.842 LAX1 DYSF 0.842 XAF1 OASL 0.842 STAT1 RSAD2 0.842 STAT1 NINJ2 0.842 STAT1 RAB31 0.842 CAT SORT1 0.842 CAT TSPO 0.842 CETP TBXAS1 0.842 CTSB PLP2 0.842 DOK3 SORL1 0.842 EMR1 PLP2 0.842 EMR1 TNIP1 0.842 LTA4H PROS1 0.842 PLP2 PYGL 0.842 TSPO TWF2 0.842 HESX1 CUL1 0.841 OAS3 DHX58 0.841 KCTD14 DNMT1 0.841 GZMB CYBRD1 0.841 GZMB LAPTM5 0.841 XAF1 HESX1 0.841 HESX1 S100A12 0.841 SAMD9 IFI44 0.841 SAMD9 IFI6 0.841 OASL IFIH1 0.841 SAMD9 IFIT1 0.841 LY6E IFIT2 0.841 IFIT2 STAT5B 0.841 JUP IFIT5 0.841 LAX1 TWF2 0.841 XAF1 OAS1 0.841 PARP12 OAS3 0.841 SIGLEC1 OASL 0.841 STAT1 PLP2 0.841 STAT1 STAT5B 0.841 ACPP RAB31 0.841 DYSF TBXAS1 0.841 EMR1 TALDO1 0.841 GPAA1 PTAFR 0.841 NINJ2 SORT1 0.841 PLP2 SORT1 0.841 SORL1 TALDO1 0.841 TNIP1 TSPO 0.841 ADA ACAA1 0.84 ADA STAT5B 0.84 OAS1 DHX58 0.84 DNMT1 ACAA1 0.84 DNMT1 TNIP1 0.84 SAMD9 GZMB 0.84 XAF1 HERC5 0.84 ISG20 HESX1 0.84 IFIT2 IFI44 0.84 IFIT2 IFIT1 0.84 RSAD2 IFIT2 0.84 SIGLEC1 IFIT2 0.84 KCTD14 IFIT5 0.84 LAX1 DOK3 0.84 PARP12 OAS1 0.84 ACPP TBXAS1 0.84 ACPP TKT 0.84 CAT PLP2 0.84 CAT STAT5B 0.84 CAT TBXAS1 0.84 CTSB EMR1 0.84 CYBRD1 TNIP1 0.84 FLII SLC12A9 0.84 HK3 NINJ2 0.84 HK3 SORL1 0.84 IMPA2 PGD 0.84 LAPTM5 STAT5B 0.84 PGD SORL1 0.84 PLP2 TBXAS1 0.84 PROS1 TBXAS1 0.84 PYGL STAT5B 0.84 RTN3 TNIP1 0.84 S100A12 TALDO1 0.84 SLC12A9 STAT5B 0.84 ADA PTAFR 0.839 JUP CUL1 0.839 XAF1 CUL1 0.839 HERC5 DHX58 0.839 PARP12 EIF2AK2 0.839 OAS1 IFIH1 0.839 JUP ISG20 0.839 ISG20 PROS1 0.839 LAX1 TALDO1 0.839 STAT1 PGD 0.839 ACAA1 IMPA2 0.839 ACAA1 TBXAS1 0.839 ACPP DYSF 0.839 ACPP NINJ2 0.839 ACPP TWF2 0.839 CAT FLII 0.839 CAT PGD 0.839 CYBRD1 DYSF 0.839 CYBRD1 TSPO 0.839 DYSF NINJ2 0.839 NRD1 RAB31 0.839 NRD1 SORL1 0.839 SORT1 NRD1 0.839 NRD1 TKT 0.839 PLP2 S100A12 0.839 S100A12 TKT 0.839 ADA CETP 0.838 ADA TKT 0.838 IFIT2 CHST12 0.838 CHST12 CYBRD1 0.838 CUL1 CETP 0.838 IFIH1 DDX60 0.838 DNMT1 ACPP 0.838 DNMT1 PTAFR 0.838 HESX1 PROS1 0.838 IFI6 IFIT2 0.838 IFIH1 OAS3 0.838 JUP IFIT2 0.838 IFIT2 ACAA1 0.838 IFIT2 CAT 0.838 IFIT2 CYBRD1 0.838 LAX1 S100A12 0.838 SAMD9 TALDO1 0.838 SAMD9 TWF2 0.838 ACAA1 CETP 0.838 ACAA1 SORT1 0.838 CTSB RTN3 0.838 SLC12A9 CTSB 0.838 GPAA1 DOK3 0.838 FLII NRD1 0.838 GPAA1 TWF2 0.838 IMPA2 NINJ2 0.838 IMPA2 PYGL 0.838 NRD1 STAT5B 0.838 PYGL SORL1 0.838 RAB31 TWF2 0.838 CUL1 DOK3 0.837 IFIT3 DHX58 0.837 EIF2AK2 XAF1 0.837 IFIT5 GZMB 0.837 GZMB DOK3 0.837 PARP12 HERC5 0.837 IFIT2 NRD1 0.837 IFIT3 ISG20 0.837 LAX1 PYGL 0.837 OASL PARP12 0.837 STAT1 OASL 0.837 STAT1 TALDO1 0.837 ACAA1 ACPP 0.837 ACAA1 CTSB 0.837 ACAA1 PYGL 0.837 ACPP S100A12 0.837 DYSF NRD1 0.837 TBXAS1 EMR1 0.837 EMR1 TKT 0.837 HK3 RTN3 0.837 IMPA2 LAPTM5 0.837 PYGL SORT1 0.837 TBXAS1 SORT1 0.837 TBXAS1 TSPO 0.837 ADA CTSB 0.836 CUL1 LAPTM5 0.836 XAF1 DDX60 0.836 DNMT1 DYSF 0.836 DNMT1 PLP2 0.836 DNMT1 RAB31 0.836 GZMB STAT5B 0.836 IFIT2 CETP 0.836 IFIT2 FLII 0.836 IFIT5 FLII 0.836 IFIT5 GPAA1 0.836 XAF1 ISG20 0.836 LAX1 RAB31 0.836 SAMD9 GPAA1 0.836 STAT1 CTSB 0.836 ACAA1 CYBRD1 0.836 ACAA1 TSPO 0.836 CYBRD1 ACPP 0.836 ACPP HK3 0.836 CYBRD1 PGD 0.836 DYSF SORL1 0.836 FLII TSPO 0.836 IMPA2 TBXAS1 0.836 LAPTM5 S100A12 0.836 PGD PROS1 0.836 PGD TBXAS1 0.836 ADA NRD1 0.835 ADA SORL1 0.835 DNMT1 IFIT2 0.835 DNMT1 CTSB 0.835 GZMB STAT1 0.835 HERC5 SAMD9 0.835 HERC5 STAT1 0.835 HESX1 IFIH1 0.835 IFI6 STAT1 0.835 KCTD14 SAMD9 0.835 LAX1 HK3 0.835 SAMD9 SIGLEC1 0.835 STAT1 GPAA1 0.835 ACPP PTAFR 0.835 CAT DYSF 0.835 CETP NRD1 0.835 CTSB NRD1 0.835 CYBRD1 S100A12 0.835 DYSF SLC12A9 0.835 EMR1 PTAFR 0.835 EMR1 SORT1 0.835 FLII GPAA1 0.835 FLII PLP2 0.835 HK3 IMPA2 0.835 LAPTM5 RAB31 0.835 LAPTM5 RTN3 0.835 NINJ2 RTN3 0.835 NRD1 PYGL 0.835 NRD1 S100A12 0.835 PTAFR PLP2 0.835 PYGL TBXAS1 0.835 CHST12 PROS1 0.834 DDX60 DHX58 0.834 DNMT1 CYBRD1 0.834 DNMT1 PYGL 0.834 DNMT1 S100A12 0.834 GZMB RTN3 0.834 GZMB SORT1 0.834 IFIH1 IFIT3 0.834 IFIT2 GPAA1 0.834 IFIT2 LAPTM5 0.834 IFIT3 IFIT5 0.834 IFIT3 XAF1 0.834 IFIT5 OAS1 0.834 LAX1 NINJ2 0.834 LAX1 SORT1 0.834 ACPP PYGL 0.834 CAT NRD1 0.834 CAT RAB31 0.834 CTSB PGD 0.834 DYSF EMR1 0.834 DYSF PROS1 0.834 DYSF RTN3 0.834 DYSF S100A12 0.834 EMR1 NINJ2 0.834 EMR1 TWF2 0.834 HK3 STAT5B 0.834 HK3 TNIP1 0.834 PTAFR PYGL 0.834 SORL1 STAT5B 0.834 SORT1 TNIP1 0.834 ADA PGD 0.833 CUL1 DHX58 0.833 DHX58 EIF2AK2 0.833 DHX58 CETP 0.833 DHX58 TALDO1 0.833 DNMT1 EMR1 0.833 IFIT2 TWF2 0.833 IFIT3 PARP12 0.833 IFIT3 SAMD9 0.833 IFIT5 OASL 0.833 LAX1 CAT 0.833 OAS1 SAMD9 0.833 SAMD9 TKT 0.833 ACAA1 RAB31 0.833 DOK3 S100A12 0.833 DYSF IMPA2 0.833 EMR1 FLII 0.833 IMPA2 TWF2 0.833 PGD PLP2 0.833 PLP2 RAB31 0.833 PTAFR RTN3 0.833 PTAFR TSPO 0.833 PYGL TSPO 0.833 SORT1 TALDO1 0.833 TALDO1 TSPO 0.833 ADA NINJ2 0.832 CHST12 GZMB 0.832 CUL1 GZMB 0.832 DHX58 ISG20 0.832 DNMT1 PROS1 0.832 HESX1 IFIT5 0.832 IFIT2 OAS1 0.832 ISG20 KCTD14 0.832 JUP KCTD14 0.832 OAS3 SAMD9 0.832 OAS3 STAT1 0.832 SAMD9 RTN3 0.832 ACAA1 PGD 0.832 CAT CETP 0.832 CAT RTN3 0.832 CETP S100A12 0.832 CTSB HK3 0.832 CYBRD1 DOK3 0.832 DOK3 RTN3 0.832 DYSF PLP2 0.832 DYSF RAB31 0.832 DYSF STAT5B 0.832 DYSF TSPO 0.832 FLII NINJ2 0.832 FLII RTN3 0.832 FLII SORT1 0.832 FLII STAT5B 0.832 HK3 PLP2 0.832 LAPTM5 TSPO 0.832 NINJ2 RAB31 0.832 NINJ2 S100A12 0.832 PGD SORT1 0.832 PTAFR PROS1 0.832 PTAFR SORL1 0.832 RTN3 TWF2 0.832 STAT1 ADA 0.831 ADA PLP2 0.831 ISG20 CHST12 0.831 IFIT5 DDX60 0.831 ISG20 DNMT1 0.831 DNMT1 LAPTM5 0.831 SAMD9 LAPTM5 0.831 ACAA1 PROS1 0.831 ACPP EMR1 0.831 CETP TSPO 0.831 CYBRD1 FLII 0.831 EMR1 LAPTM5 0.831 HK3 TBXAS1 0.831 NINJ2 NRD1 0.831 NINJ2 PYGL 0.831 PGD S100A12 0.831 PLP2 TKT 0.831 RTN3 RAB31 0.831 ADA DYSF 0.83 ADA HK3 0.83 STAT1 CHST12 0.83 IFIH1 CUL1 0.83 KCTD14 DHX58 0.83 DNMT1 RTN3 0.83 IFIT2 HERC5 0.83 ISG20 IFIH1 0.83 IFIT2 TNIP1 0.83 LAX1 CYBRD1 0.83 LAX1 RTN3 0.83 SAMD9 OASL 0.83 XAF1 PARP12 0.83 STAT1 DOK3 0.83 STAT1 NRD1 0.83 STAT1 PROS1 0.83 ACAA1 DYSF 0.83 ACAA1 S100A12 0.83 CAT HK3 0.83 CAT LAPTM5 0.83 CETP CTSB 0.83 CETP DYSF 0.83 CETP IMPA2 0.83 CTSB TBXAS1 0.83 CTSB TWF2 0.83 CYBRD1 TBXAS1 0.83 CYBRD1 TWF2 0.83 IMPA2 FLII 0.83 HK3 NRD1 0.83 HK3 PROS1 0.83 HK3 SLC12A9 0.83 HK3 TWF2 0.83 IMPA2 PROS1 0.83 IMPA2 PTAFR 0.83 IMPA2 TALDO1 0.83 PYGL TWF2 0.83 RAB31 S100A12 0.83 SORT1 TKT 0.83 SORT1 TWF2 0.83 ADA CYBRD1 0.829 LAX1 CUL1 0.829 OASL DHX58 0.829 DHX58 CAT 0.829 IFIT2 EIF2AK2 0.829 KCTD14 IFIH1 0.829 STAT1 RTN3 0.829 ACAA1 PLP2 0.829 CAT TWF2 0.829 CETP RTN3 0.829 CTSB CYBRD1 0.829 CTSB PYGL 0.829 IMPA2 TKT 0.829 NRD1 TALDO1 0.829 PLP2 TNIP1 0.829 TKT TSPO 0.829 ISG20 ADA 0.828 ADA CAT 0.828 ADA PROS1 0.828 SAMD9 DDX60 0.828 IFIT5 DHX58 0.828 XAF1 DHX58 0.828 STAT1 DNMT1 0.828 ISG20 GZMB 0.828 LAX1 GZMB 0.828 KCTD14 HESX1 0.828 OASL IFIT2 0.828 LAX1 ISG20 0.828 PARP12 ISG20 0.828 SAMD9 ISG20 0.828 STAT1 KCTD14 0.828 STAT1 OAS1 0.828 STAT1 CAT 0.828 ACAA1 EMR1 0.828 ACPP DOK3 0.828 CAT PTAFR 0.828 CTSB NINJ2 0.828 CTSB S100A12 0.828 CTSB TALDO1 0.828 CYBRD1 NINJ2 0.828 CYBRD1 NRD1 0.828 DOK3 IMPA2 0.828 DOK3 SLC12A9 0.828 DOK3 STAT5B 0.828 DYSF TALDO1 0.828 DYSF TWF2 0.828 PGD RTN3 0.828 PLP2 TALDO1 0.828 PYGL RTN3 0.828 TALDO1 TBXAS1 0.828 ADA RAB31 0.827 IFIT2 DDX60 0.827 DHX58 PROS1 0.827 STAT1 EIF2AK2 0.827 PARP12 IFIH1 0.827 XAF1 IFIH1 0.827 SAMD9 FLII 0.827 ACAA1 TALDO1 0.827 CETP HK3 0.827 CETP NINJ2 0.827 CETP PGD 0.827 CETP PTAFR 0.827 CETP RAB31 0.827 LAPTM5 PLP2 0.827 PTAFR S100A12 0.827 ADA TALDO1 0.826 SAMD9 EIF2AK2 0.826 HERC5 IFIT5 0.826 OAS3 IFIT2 0.826 STAT1 TKT 0.826 CAT DOK3 0.826 CAT S100A12 0.826 CETP CYBRD1 0.826 CETP FLII 0.826 CETP PLP2 0.826 CYBRD1 PTAFR 0.826 DOK3 PYGL 0.826 DYSF PTAFR 0.826 HK3 RAB31 0.826 HK3 TSPO 0.826 NRD1 TNIP1 0.826 PGD TNIP1 0.826 PGD TSPO 0.826 PTAFR STAT5B 0.826 PTAFR TBXAS1 0.826 PYGL S100A12 0.826 ADA RTN3 0.825 CUL1 PROS1 0.825 HESX1 DHX58 0.825 DHX58 CYBRD1 0.825 DNMT1 HK3 0.825 PARP12 HESX1 0.825 STAT1 HESX1 0.825 ISG20 CYBRD1 0.825 STAT1 TNIP1 0.825 ACAA1 TKT 0.825 CTSB DYSF 0.825 CYBRD1 HK3 0.825 EMR1 HK3 0.825 FLII TBXAS1 0.825 LAPTM5 PYGL 0.825 NINJ2 TBXAS1 0.825 PGD RAB31 0.825 PLP2 PROS1 0.825 PROS1 TSPO 0.825 PTAFR RAB31 0.825 PTAFR SLC12A9 0.825 RAB31 TALDO1 0.825 TBXAS1 TKT 0.825 CUL1 ADA 0.824 ADA PYGL 0.824 IFIT2 DHX58 0.824 EIF2AK2 IFIT5 0.824 IFIT3 IFIT2 0.824 STAT1 IFIT3 0.824 LAX1 PROS1 0.824 SAMD9 CETP 0.824 STAT1 TWF2 0.824 CAT CYBRD1 0.824 CTSB PROS1 0.824 CYBRD1 LAPTM5 0.824 DOK3 RAB31 0.824 DYSF LAPTM5 0.824 FLII PYGL 0.824 HK3 S100A12 0.824 HK3 TKT 0.824 LAPTM5 SORT1 0.824 LAPTM5 TALDO1 0.824 LAPTM5 TBXAS1 0.824 PTAFR SORT1 0.824 PYGL TNIP1 0.824 ISG20 CUL1 0.823 PARP12 CUL1 0.823 CUL1 CYBRD1 0.823 ACAA1 TNIP1 0.823 CAT TKT 0.823 DOK3 TBXAS1 0.823 DYSF SORT1 0.823 FLII HK3 0.823 NRD1 PTAFR 0.823 PROS1 RTN3 0.823 PYGL RAB31 0.823 RAB31 TKT 0.823 STAT5B TNIP1 0.823 GZMB ADA 0.822 LAX1 CHST12 0.822 IFIT2 CUL1 0.822 KCTD14 CUL1 0.822 SAMD9 DHX58 0.822 JUP DNMT1 0.822 ISG20 IFIT2 0.822 XAF1 IFIT5 0.822 SAMD9 TNIP1 0.822 STAT1 CYBRD1 0.822 CAT TALDO1 0.822 CETP TNIP1 0.822 CTSB FLII 0.822 CYBRD1 RAB31 0.822 FLII PROS1 0.822 NRD1 PROS1 0.822 PYGL TKT 0.822 BXAS1 TTWF2 0.822 ADA S100A12 0.821 SAMD9 HESX1 0.821 SAMD9 IFIH1 0.821 STAT1 CETP 0.821 STAT1 FLII 0.821 CAT PYGL 0.821 CTSB TKT 0.821 RTN3 CYBRD1 0.821 DOK3 PROS1 0.821 DYSF PYGL 0.821 RTN3 TKT 0.821 ADA SORT1 0.82 PARP12 DHX58 0.82 ISG20 IFIT5 0.82 ACAA1 FLII 0.82 ACAA1 LAPTM5 0.82 CTSB DOK3 0.82 CYBRD1 TALDO1 0.82 DYSF HK3 0.82 DYSF TKT 0.82 DYSF TNIP1 0.82 HK3 LAPTM5 0.82 NINJ2 PLP2 0.82 NINJ2 PROS1 0.82 PGD PTAFR 0.82 PGD PYGL 0.82 PROS1 S100A12 0.82 PROS1 TNIP1 0.82 PYGL TALDO1 0.82 ADA LAPTM5 0.819 CUL1 CHST12 0.819 SAMD9 CUL1 0.819 STAT1 DDX60 0.819 CETP PYGL 0.819 PYGL CYBRD1 0.819 DOK3 EMR1 0.819 HK3 SORT1 0.819 RTN3 TALDO1 0.819 DNMT1 GZMB 0.818 IFIT2 HESX1 0.818 XAF1 IFIT2 0.818 XAF1 SAMD9 0.818 CTSB CAT 0.818 CETP TKT 0.818 CTSB PTAFR 0.818 TNIP1 CTSB 0.818 DOK3 NRD1 0.818 DOK3 SORT1 0.818 DOK3 TSPO 0.818 HK3 TALDO1 0.818 LAPTM5 PGD 0.818 PGD TALDO1 0.818 PROS1 PYGL 0.818 PTAFR TWF2 0.818 TALDO1 TNIP1 0.818 ADA DOK3 0.817 DNMT1 CUL1 0.817 IFIT5 IFIH1 0.817 PARP12 IFIT5 0.817 SAMD9 PARP12 0.817 STAT1 LAPTM5 0.817 ACAA1 HK3 0.817 ACAA1 TWF2 0.817 CAT PROS1 0.817 FLII PGD 0.817 HK3 PYGL 0.817 LAPTM5 TNIP1 0.817 NINJ2 TKT 0.817 TKT TNIP1 0.817 CHST12 ADA 0.816 IFIT5 CUL1 0.816 PARP12 IFIT2 0.816 CAT NINJ2 0.816 DYSF FLII 0.816 PGD TWF2 0.816 PROS1 TKT 0.816 PTAFR TNIP1 0.816 TKT TWF2 0.816 STAT1 DHX58 0.815 DNMT1 NINJ2 0.815 KCTD14 IFIT2 0.815 ACAA1 NINJ2 0.815 ACAA1 PTAFR 0.815 CYBRD1 PROS1 0.815 DYSF DOK3 0.815 HK3 PTAFR 0.815 NINJ2 PTAFR 0.815 NINJ2 TNIP1 0.815 PROS1 RAB31 0.815 CETP DOK3 0.814 CTSB LAPTM5 0.814 TKT CYBRD1 0.814 FLII TNIP1 0.814 LAPTM5 NINJ2 0.814 PLP2 TWF2 0.814 PROS1 TWF2 0.814 CETP LAPTM5 0.813 CETP TALDO1 0.813 DOK3 NINJ2 0.813 DYSF PGD 0.813 TNIP1 TWF2 0.813 DOK3 PLP2 0.812 FLII TALDO1 0.812 LAPTM5 PROS1 0.812 NINJ2 TALDO1 0.812 PGD TKT 0.812 TWF2 TALDO1 0.812 SAMD9 IFIT2 0.811 STAT1 ISG20 0.811 XAF1 STAT1 0.811 CETP TWF2 0.811 HK3 PGD 0.811 PTAFR TALDO1 0.811 PARP12 STAT1 0.81 ACAA1 DOK3 0.81 FLII PTAFR 0.81 TKT LAPTM5 0.81 DNMT1 DOK3 0.809 PTAFR LAPTM5 0.809 PTAFR TKT 0.809 STAT1 IFIT5 0.808 TWF2 LAPTM5 0.808 PROS1 TALDO1 0.808 DNMT1 SORT1 0.807 ADA LAX1 0.806 DOK3 HK3 0.806 SAMD9 IFIT5 0.805 DOK3 PTAFR 0.805 FLII TKT 0.805 DNMT1 CHST12 0.804 IFIT2 IFIH1 0.804 NINJ2 TWF2 0.804 STAT1 IFIH1 0.803 IFIT5 IFIT2 0.803 CETP PROS1 0.802 DOK3 TKT 0.802 FLII TWF2 0.802 STAT1 IFIT2 0.801 SAMD9 STAT1 0.8 DOK3 TWF2 0.8

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While the preferred embodiments of the invention have been illustrated and described, it will be appreciated that various changes can be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method for diagnosing an infection in a patient, the method comprising: a) measuring levels of expression of at least two biomarkers in a biological sample of a patient; the at least two biomarkers selected from either or both of a first set of biomarkers wherein a higher level of expression indicates a bacterial infection, and a second set of biomarkers wherein a higher level of expression indicates a viral infection; wherein the first set of biomarkers comprise at least one of TSPO, EMR1, NINJ2, ACPP, TBXAS1, PGD, S100A12, SORT1, TNIP1, RAB31, SLC12A9, PLP2, IMPA2, GPAA1, LTA4H, RTN3, CETP, TALD01, HK3, ACAA1, CAT, DOK3, SORL1, PYGL, DYSF, TWF2, TKT, CTSB, FLII, PROS1, NRD1, STAT5B, CYBRD1, PTAFR, and LAPTM5; and wherein the second set of biomarkers comprise at least one of OAS1, IFIT1, SAMD9, ISG15, DDX60, HESX1, OASL, LAX1, IFIT5, KCTD14, RTP4, PARP12, LY6E, ADA, IFI44L, IFI27, IFI44, OAS3, IFIH1, SIGLEC1, JUP, STAT1, CUL1, DNMT1, IFIT2, CHST12, ISG20, DHX58, EIF2AK2, XAF1, and GZMB; and b) analyzing the levels of expression of each biomarker in conjunction with respective reference value ranges for the biomarkers to determine a viral or bacterial infection.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the at least two biomarkers include SIGLEC1 and SLC12A9.
 3. The method of any prior claim, wherein the levels of expression of the at least two biomarkers provide an area under a receiver operating characteristic curve of at least 0.80.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the first set of biomarkers comprise at least one of HK3, TNIP1, GPAA1, and CTSB; and wherein the second set of biomarkers comprise at least one of IFI27, JUP, and LAX1
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the biological sample comprises whole blood or peripheral blood mononucleated cells (PBMCS).
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the levels of the biomarkers are compared to time-matched reference values for infected or non-infected subjects.
 7. The method of claim 1, further comprising calculating a bacterial/viral metascore for the patient based on the levels of the biomarkers, wherein a positive bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a viral infection and a negative bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a bacterial infection.
 8. The method of claim 1, further comprising normalizing data using COCONUT normalization; COCONUT normalization comprising the steps of: a) separating data from multiple cohorts into healthy and diseased components; b) co-normalizing the healthy components using ComBat co-normalization without covariates; c) obtaining ComBat estimated parameters for each dataset for the healthy component; and d) applying the ComBat estimated parameters onto the diseased component.
 9. The method of claim 1, wherein the patient is a human being.
 10. The method of claim 1, wherein measuring the level of the biomarkers comprises performing one or more methods including microarray analysis via fluorescence, chemiluminesence, or electrical signal detection, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), digital droplet PCR (ddPCR), solid-state nanopore detection, RNA switch activation, a Northern blot, or a serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE).
 11. A method of diagnosing and treating a patient having inflammation, the method comprising: a) measuring levels of expression of IFI27, JUP, LAX1, HK3, TNIP1, GPAA1, CTSB, CEACAM1, ZDHHC19, C9orf95, GNA15, BATF, C3AR1, KIAA1370, TGFBI, MTCH1, RPGRIP1, and HLA-DPB1 biomarkers in a biological sample of the patient; and b) first analyzing the levels of expression of each biomarker in conjunction with respective reference value ranges for the biomarkers, wherein increased levels of expression of the CEACAM1, ZDHHC19, C9orf95, GNA15, BATF, and C3AR1 biomarkers and decreased levels of expression of the KIAA1370, TGFBI, MTCH1, RPGRIP1, and HLA-DPB1 biomarkers compared to the reference value ranges for the biomarkers for a non-infected control subject indicate that the patient has an infection, and absence of differential expression of the CEACAM1, ZDHHC19, C9orf95, GNA15, BATF, C3AR1, KIAA1370, TGFBI, MTCH1, RPGRIP1, and HLA-DPB1 biomarkers compared the non-infected control subject indicates that the patient does not have an infection; and c) further analyzing the levels of expression of at least two biomarkers in a biological sample of a patient; the at least two biomarkers selected from either or both of a first set of biomarkers wherein a higher level of expression indicates a bacterial infection, and a second set of biomarkers wherein a higher level of expression indicates a viral infection; wherein the first set of biomarkers comprise at least one of TSPO, EMR1, NINJ2, ACPP, TBXAS1, PGD, S100A12, SORT1, TNIP1, RAB31, SLC12A9, PLP2, IMPA2, GPAA1, LTA4H, RTN3, CETP, TALD01, HK3, ACAA1, CAT, DOK3, SORL1, PYGL, DYSF, TWF2, TKT, CTSB, FLII, PROS1, NRD1, STAT5B, CYBRD1, PTAFR, and LAPTM5; and wherein the second set of biomarkers comprise at least one of OAS1, IFIT1, SAMD9, ISG15, HERC5, DDX60, HESX1, IFI6, MX1, OASL, LAX1, IFIT5, IFIT3, KCTD14, OAS2, RTP4, PARP12, LY6E, ADA, IFI44L, IFI27, RSAD2, IFI44, OAS3, IFIH1, SIGLEC1, JUP, STAT1, CUL1, DNMT1, IFIT2, CHST12, ISG20, DHX58, EIF2AK2, XAF1, and GZMB to determine a bacterial or viral infection.
 12. The method of claim 11, further comprising calculating a sepsis metascore for the patient, wherein a sepsis metascore that is higher than the reference value ranges for a non-infected control subject indicates that the patient has an infection, and a sepsis metascore that is within the reference value ranges for a non-infected control subject indicates that the patient has a non-infectious inflammatory condition.
 13. The method of any of claims 11-12, further comprising calculating a bacterial/viral metascore for the patient if the patient is diagnosed as having an infection, wherein a positive bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a viral infection and a negative bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a bacterial infection.
 14. The method of claim 11, wherein the levels of the biomarkers are compared to time-matched reference values for infected or non-infected subjects.
 15. The method of claim 11, wherein the non-infectious inflammatory condition is selected from the group consisting of systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS), an autoimmune disorder, a traumatic injury, and surgery.
 16. The method of claim 11, wherein the patient is a human being.
 17. The method of claim 11, wherein measuring the levels of the biomarkers comprises performing one or more methods including microarray analysis via fluorescence, chemiluminesence, or electrical signal detection, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), digital droplet PCR (ddPCR), solid-state nanopore detection, RNA switch activation, a Northern blot, or a serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE).
 18. A kit comprising agents for measuring levels of at least two biomarkers in a biological sample of a patient; the at least two biomarkers selected from either or both of a first set of biomarkers wherein a higher level of expression indicates a bacterial infection, and a second set of biomarkers wherein a higher level of expression indicates a viral infection wherein the first set of biomarkers comprise at least one of TSPO, EMR1, NINJ2, ACPP, TBXAS1, PGD, S100A12, SORT1, TNIP1, RAB31, SLC12A9, PLP2, IMPA2, GPAA1, LTA4H, RTN3, CETP, TALD01, HK3, ACAA1, CAT, DOK3, SORL1, PYGL, DYSF, TWF2, TKT, CTSB, FLII, PROS1, NRD1, STAT5B, CYBRD1, PTAFR, and LAPTM5; and wherein the second set of biomarkers comprise at least one of OAS1, IFIT1, SAMD9, ISG15, DDX60, HESX1, OASL, LAX1, IFIT5, KCTD14, RTP4, PARP12, LY6E, ADA, IFI44L, IFI27, IFI44, OAS3, IFIH1, SIGLEC1, JUP, STAT1, CUL1, DNMT1, IFIT2, CHST12, ISG20, DHX58, EIF2AK2, XAF1, and GZMB.
 19. The kit of claim 18, further comprising agents for measuring the levels of CEACAM1, ZDHHC19, C9orf95, GNA15, BATF, C3AR1, KIAA1370, TGFBI, MTCH1, RPGRIP1, and HLA-DPB1 biomarkers.
 20. The kit of any of claims 18-19, further comprising a microarray.
 21. The kit of claim 20, wherein the microarray comprises an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to an IFI27 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a JUP polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a LAX1 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a HK3 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a TNIP1 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a GPAA1 polynucleotide, and an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a CTSB polynucleotide
 22. The kit of claim 20, wherein the microarray further comprising an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a CEACAM1 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a ZDHHC19 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a C9orf95 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a GNA15 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a BATF polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a C3AR1 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a KIAA1370 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a TGFBI polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a MTCH1 polynucleotide, an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a RPGRIP1 polynucleotide, and an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a HLA-DPB1 polynucleotide.
 23. The kit of claim 18, further comprising information, in electronic or paper form, comprising instructions to correlate the detected levels of each biomarker with sepsis.
 24. A computer implemented method for diagnosing a patient suspected of having an infection, the computer performing steps comprising: a) receiving inputted patient data comprising values for levels of at least two biomarkers in a biological sample of a patient; the at least two biomarkers selected from either or both of a first set of biomarkers wherein a higher level of expression indicates a bacterial infection, and a second set of biomarkers wherein a higher level of expression indicates a viral infection; wherein the first set of biomarkers comprise at least one of TSPO, EMR1, NINJ2, ACPP, TBXAS1, PGD, S100A12, SORT1, TNIP1, RAB31, SLC12A9, PLP2, IMPA2, GPAA1, LTA4H, RTN3, CETP, TALD01, HK3, ACAA1, CAT, DOK3, SORL1, PYGL, DYSF, TWF2, TKT, CTSB, FLII, PROS1, NRD1, STAT5B, CYBRD1, PTAFR, and LAPTM5; and wherein the second set of biomarkers comprise at least one of OAS1, IFIT1, SAMD9, ISG15, DDX60, HESX1, OASL, LAX1, IFIT5, KCTD14, RTP4, PARP12, LY6E, ADA, IFI44L, IFI27, IFI44, OAS3, IFIH1, SIGLEC1, JUP, STAT1, CUL1, DNMT1, IFIT2, CHST12, ISG20, DHX58, EIF2AK2, XAF1, and GZMB biomarkers in the biological sample from the patient; b) analyzing the level of each of the biomarkers and comparing with respective reference value ranges for the biomarkers; c) calculating a bacterial/viral metascore for the patient based on the levels of the biomarkers, wherein a positive bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a viral infection and a negative bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a bacterial infection; and d) displaying information regarding the diagnosis of the patient.
 25. The method of claim 24, wherein the biological sample comprises whole blood or peripheral blood mononucleated cells (PBMCS).
 26. A diagnostic system for performing the method of claim 24, comprising: a) a storage component for storing data, wherein the storage component has instructions for determining the diagnosis of the patient stored therein; b) a computer processor for processing data, wherein the computer processor is coupled to the storage component and configured to execute the instructions stored in the storage component in order to receive patient data and analyze patient data according to one or more algorithms; and c) a display component for displaying information regarding the diagnosis of the patient.
 27. The diagnostic system of claim 26, wherein the storage component comprises instructions for calculating the bacterial/viral metascore.
 28. A computer implemented method for diagnosing a patient having inflammation, the computer performing steps comprising: a) receiving inputted patient data comprising values for the levels of IFI27, JUP, LAX1, HK3, TNIP1, GPAA1, CTSB, CEACAM1, ZDHHC19, C9orf95, GNA15, BATF, C3AR1, KIAA1370, TGFBI, MTCH1, RPGRIP1, and HLA-DPB1 biomarkers in a biological sample from the patient; b) analyzing the levels of each of the biomarkers and comparing with respective reference value ranges for the biomarkers; c) calculating a sepsis metascore for the patient, wherein a sepsis metascore that is higher than the reference value ranges for a non-infected control subject indicates that the patient has an infection, and a sepsis metascore that is within the reference value ranges for a non-infected control subject indicates that the patient has a non-infectious inflammatory condition; d) calculating a bacterial/viral metascore for the patient if the sepsis metascore indicates that the patient has an infection, wherein a positive bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a viral infection and a negative bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a bacterial infection; and e) displaying information regarding the diagnosis of the patient.
 29. The method of claim 28, wherein the biological sample comprises whole blood or peripheral blood mononucleated cells (PBMCS).
 30. A diagnostic system for performing the method of claim 28, comprising: a) a storage component for storing data, wherein the storage component has instructions for determining the diagnosis of the patient stored therein; b) a computer processor for processing data, wherein the computer processor is coupled to the storage component and configured to execute the instructions stored in the storage component in order to receive patient data and analyze patient data according to one or more algorithms; and c) a display component for displaying information regarding the diagnosis of the patient.
 31. The diagnostic system of claim 30, wherein the storage component comprises instructions for calculating the sepsis metascore and the bacterial/viral metascore.
 32. A method for diagnosing and treating an infection in a patient, the method comprising: a) obtaining a biological sample from the patient; b) measuring the levels of expression of any set of at least two biomarkers in a biological sample of a patient; the at least two biomarkers selected from either or both of a first set of biomarkers wherein a higher level of expression indicates a bacterial infection, and a second set of biomarkers wherein a higher level of expression indicates a viral infection; wherein the first set of biomarkers comprise at least one of TSPO, EMR1, NINJ2, ACPP, TBXAS1, PGD, S100A12, SORT1, TNIP1, RAB31, SLC12A9, PLP2, IMPA2, GPAA1, LTA4H, RTN3, CETP, TALD01, HK3, ACAA1, CAT, DOK3, SORL1, PYGL, DYSF, TWF2, TKT, CTSB, FLII, PROS1, NRD1, STAT5B, CYBRD1, PTAFR, and LAPTM5; and wherein the second set of biomarkers comprise at least one of OAS1, IFIT1, SAMD9, ISG15, DDX60, HESX1, OASL, LAX1, IFIT5, KCTD14, RTP4, PARP12, LY6E, ADA, IFI44L, IFI27, IFI44, OAS3, IFIH1, SIGLEC1, JUP, STAT1, CUL1, DNMT1, IFIT2, CHST12, ISG20, DHX58, EIF2AK2, XAF1, and GZMB; and c) analyzing the levels of expression of each biomarker in conjunction with respective reference value ranges for a noninfected control subject, wherein differential expression of the viral response genes compared to the reference value ranges for a noninfected control subject indicate that the patient has a viral infection, and differential expression of the bacterial response genes compared to the reference value ranges for a noninfected control subject indicate that the patient has a bacterial infection.
 33. The method of claim 32, wherein the set of viral and bacterial response genes are selected from the group consisting of: a) a set of viral response genes comprising OAS2 and CUL1 and a set of bacterial response genes comprising SLC12A9, ACPP, STAT5B; b) a set of viral response genes comprising ISG15 and CHST12 and a set of bacterial response genes comprising EMR1 and FLII; c) a set of viral response genes comprising IFIT1, SIGLEC1, and ADA and a set of bacterial response genes comprising PTAFR, NRD1, PLP2; d) a set of viral response genes comprising MX1 and a set of bacterial response genes comprising DYSF, TWF2; e) a set of viral response genes comprising RSAD2 and a set of bacterial response genes comprising SORT1 and TSPO; f) a set of viral response genes comprising IFI44L, GZMB, and KCTD14 and a set of bacterial response genes comprising TBXAS1, ACAA1, and S100A12; g) a set of viral response genes comprising LY6E and a set of bacterial response genes comprising PGD and LAPTM5; h) a set of viral response genes comprising IFI44, HESX1, and OASL and a set of bacterial response genes comprising NINJ2, DOK3, SORL1, and RAB31; i) a set of viral response genes comprising OAS1 and a set of bacterial response genes comprising IMPA2 and LTA4H.
 34. The method of any of claims 32-33, wherein the biological sample comprises whole blood or peripheral blood mononucleated cells (PBMCS).
 35. The method of claim 32, wherein the levels of the biomarkers are compared to time-matched reference values for infected or non-infected subjects.
 36. The method of claim 32, further comprising calculating a bacterial/viral metascore for the patient t based on the levels of the biomarkers, wherein a positive bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a viral infection and a negative bacterial/viral metascore for the patient indicates that the patient has a bacterial infection.
 37. The method of claim 32, further comprising measuring levels of expression of IFI27, JUP, LAX1, HK3, TNIP1, GPAA1, CTSB, CEACAM1, ZDHHC19, C9orf95, GNA15, BATF, C3AR1, KIAA1370, TGFBI, MTCH1, RPGRIP1, and HLA-DPB1 biomarkers in the biological sample; and analyzing the levels of expression of each biomarker in conjunction with respective reference value ranges for the biomarkers, wherein increased levels of expression of the CEACAM1, ZDHHC19, C9orf95, GNA15, BATF, and C3AR1 biomarkers and decreased levels of expression of the KIAA1370, TGFBI, MTCH1, RPGRIP1, and HLA-DPB1 biomarkers compared to the reference value ranges for the biomarkers for a non-infected control subject indicate that the patient has an infection, and absence of differential expression of the CEACAM1, ZDHHC19, C9orf95, GNA15, BATF, C3AR1, KIAA1370, TGFBI, MTCH1, RPGRIP1, and HLA-DPB1 biomarkers compared the non-infected control subject indicates that the patient does not have an infection.
 38. A kit comprising agents for measuring the levels of expression of a set of viral response genes and a set of bacterial response genes selected from the group consisting of: a) a set of viral response genes comprising OAS2 and CUL1 and a set of bacterial response genes comprising SLC12A9, ACPP, STAT5B; b) a set of viral response genes comprising ISG15 and CHST12 and a set of bacterial response genes comprising EMR1 and FLII; c) a set of viral response genes comprising IFIT1, SIGLEC1, and ADA and a set of bacterial response genes comprising PTAFR, NRD1, PLP2; d) a set of viral response genes comprising MX1 and a set of bacterial response genes comprising DYSF, TWF2; e) a set of viral response genes comprising RSAD2 and a set of bacterial response genes comprising SORT1 and TSPO; f) a set of viral response genes comprising IFI44L, GZMB, and KCTD14 and a set of bacterial response genes comprising TBXAS1, ACAA1, and S100A12; g) a set of viral response genes comprising LY6E and a set of bacterial response genes comprising PGD and LAPTM5; h) a set of viral response genes comprising IFI44, HESX1, and OASL and a set of bacterial response genes comprising NINJ2, DOK3, SORL1, and RAB31; and i) a set of viral response genes comprising OAS1 and a set of bacterial response genes comprising IMPA2 and LTA4H.
 39. The kit of claim 38, further comprising a microarray.
 40. A computer implemented method for diagnosing a patient suspected of having an infection, the computer performing steps comprising: a) receiving inputted patient data comprising values for the levels of expression of at least two biomarkers in a biological sample of a patient; the at least two biomarkers selected from either or both of a first set of biomarkers wherein a higher level of expression indicates a bacterial infection, and a second set of biomarkers wherein a higher level of expression indicates a viral infection, wherein the set of viral response genes comprises one or more genes selected from the group consisting of CUL1, ISG15, CHST12, IFIT1, SIGLEC1, ADA, IFI44L, GZMB, KCTD14, LY6E, IFI44, HESX1, OASL, OAS1, OAS3, EIF2AK2, DDX60, DNMT1, IFIH1, SAMD9, IFIT5, XAF1, ISG20, PARP12, IFIT2, DHX58, STAT1, and the set of bacterial response genes comprises one or more genes selected from the group consisting of SLC12A9, ACPP, STAT5B, EMR1, FLII, PTAFR, NRD1, PLP2, DYSF, TWF2, SORT1, TSPO, TBXAS1, ACAA1, S100A12, PGD, LAPTM5, NINJ2, DOK3, SORL1, RAB31, IMPA2, LTA4H, TALDO1, TKT, PYGL, CETP, PROS1, RTN3, CAT, CYBRD1; b) analyzing the levels of expression of the set of viral response genes and the set of bacterial response genes and comparing with respective reference value ranges for a noninfected control subject; c) calculating a bacterial/viral metascore for the patient based on the levels of expression of the set of viral response genes and the set of bacterial response genes; and d) displaying information regarding the diagnosis of the patient.
 41. A diagnostic system for performing the method of claim 40, comprising: a) a storage component for storing data, wherein the storage component has instructions for determining the diagnosis of the patient stored therein; b) a computer processor for processing data, wherein the computer processor is coupled to the storage component and configured to execute the instructions stored in the storage component in order to receive patient data and analyze patient data according to one or more algorithms; and c) a display component for displaying information regarding the diagnosis of the patient.
 42. The method of claim 1, wherein measuring the level of expression of the biomarkers comprises measuring an amount of mRNA, or polynucleotides derived therefrom, present in a biological sample for each of the at least two biomarkers. 